PSYC 3380 Cognitive Neuroscience: Speech and Language
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Questions and Answers

The Cohort Model suggests that speech recognition involves competition between similar sounding words.

True

Phonemes are universally accepted as the access units in spoken word recognition.

False

The Cohort Model explains how a sentence is recognized.

False

Imageability of a word has no influence on word recognition.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Frequency of a word has no effect on how quickly it is recognized.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

The Uniqueness Point is reached when multiple words are still possible candidates.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

The Cohort Model proposes that only one word is considered at a time during speech recognition.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Alex the parrot is an example of an animal with language abilities similar to those of humans.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

EEG studies show that in a sentence, out of context words induce a P600 response.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Aphasia is a disorder of language due to brain damage on the right hemisphere.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Broca's area is located in the temporal lobe.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Wernicke's area is responsible for speech production.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Patients with Broca's aphasia have trouble with fluent speaking but their speech is coherent.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Syntax is related to the meaning of words in a sentence.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Broca's aphasia is related to a loss of vocabulary.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Syntax and semantics are completely independent in language processing.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Lexicalization involves the selection of a word based on its grammatical properties.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Freudian slips are a type of speech error where the speaker intentionally substitutes one word for another.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon is a permanent speech error associated with brain damage.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Anomia is a speech error characterized by difficulties in retrieving proper names.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Damage to the basal ganglia results in apraxia for speech.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

People with apraxia for speech have difficulties with the production of consonants due to abnormal muscle tone.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Malapropisms are a type of speech error where the speaker intentionally uses a word with a similar meaning to the intended word.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Articulation is the first stage of speech production.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Literacy is a recent invention that is developed on a societal level.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

We process letter strings one by one when recognizing words.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

The Visual Word Form Area is only dedicated to visual lexicon.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

The Word Superiority Effect suggests that it is easier to detect a letter in a random letter string.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

The Visual Lexicon is a temporary storage for how words are written.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

The Visual Word Form Area is located in the right mid fusiform gyrus.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Reading uses different brain regions across different languages.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Central dyslexia is a disruption of reading that arises before computation of a visual word form.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Deep dysgraphia is a type of dysgraphia where real word spelling is prone to phonological error.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Pure alexia is a difficulty in reading words that leads to whole-word reading.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

FMRI studies show that literacy is predominantly right-lateralized.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Numeracy is limited to maths.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Dysgraphia is typically unimodal, patients tend to produce different kinds of errors in writing and oral spelling.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Peripheral dyslexia is a disruption of reading arising after computation of a visual word form.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Non-symbolic number processing is unique to humans

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

We can subitize exact quantities of up to 10 items without counting

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

The distance effect occurs when the distance between two numbers is small

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

The number system only processes countable quantities

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

The SNARC effect is a cultural phenomenon specific to Western cultures

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

The Triple Code Model proposes that there is only one representation of numbers in the brain

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

The ability to process symbolic numbers is innate in humans

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Dyscalculia is a rare condition that affects only a small percentage of the population

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Task switching is related to the prefrontal cortex

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Patients with lesions to the anterior prefrontal cortex are not impaired at multi-tasking

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

The Somatic Marker Hypothesis states that somatic markers are stored in the amygdala

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

The Iowa Gambling Test is related to the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC)

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Delay discounting is related to the lateral prefrontal cortex

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

The Multiple Demand Network is a subdivision of the occipital lobe

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

The Anterior Cingulate Cortex (ACC) is involved in decision-making

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

The ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC) is involved in somatic markers only in emotional situations

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

The lateral PFC is specialized in task monitoring while the right lateral PFC is for problem solving

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

The Anterior Cingulate Cortex (ACC) is only involved in error detection

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

The dorsal ACC is involved in the affective division

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Humans are less lateralized compared to other primates

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

The lateral PFC and the ACC are not involved in cognitive control

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

The error+1 trial tends to be faster and less accurate than the correct+1 trial

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Executive functions are tied to a particular domain such as memory, language, or perception.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

The Tower of London is a test used to assess problem-solving abilities.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

The anterior cingulate cortex is involved in overcoming habitual responses.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Task switching involves discarding a previous schema and establishing a new one.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Switch cost refers to an improvement in response time due to task switching.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

The prefrontal cortex is responsible for executive functions.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Lesions to the prefrontal cortex can lead to improved problem-solving abilities.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test is a task that assesses executive functions.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Emotions are critical for guiding social behavior.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the James-Lange Theory, emotions come before expression.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

The Papez Circuit and Limbic Brain differentiate between different emotions.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Paul Ekman's theory suggests that there are six basic emotions.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

The hypothalamus is not involved in emotions according to the Cannon-Bard Theory.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Emotions are solely associated with stimuli that are inherently rewarding or punishing.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Group living is not survivally advantageous.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Darwin's theory of emotion suggests that human emotions are unique to humans.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

The fusiform face area is responsible for facial identity recognition.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Simulation theory proposes that we understand others by vicariously producing their current state in ourselves.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

The Feldman-Barrett theory claims that all emotions tap into a core affect system that is organized along three dimensions.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

The amygdala is involved in memory, especially emotional content of memories, and is important for fear learning and recognizing fear.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

Capgras syndrome is characterized by an inability to recognize familiar faces.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

The insula is involved in monitoring the external state of the body, but not interoception.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Eye gaze information is important for group communication.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Theory-of-mind is the ability to appreciate others' points of view and share their experiences.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

The orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) computes current value of a stimulus based on its palatability.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

The anterior cingulate cortex is involved in error monitoring and calculating whether an action will elicit a reward or punishment.

<p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

The mirror system is a neural circuit that maintains a clear distinction between self and other.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

The ventral striatum is involved in punishment-related behaviors.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Kluver-Bucy syndrome is a rare genetic disorder that affects emotional regulation.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Lesions to the insula can affect recognition of all facial expressions, not just disgust.

<p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Speech and Language

  • Speech is a means of transferring ideas from one individual to another through the vibration of molecules in the air.
  • Language is a social engagement that involves deducting what others know or believe.
  • Animals may have language, as demonstrated by Washoe, Kanzi, and Golden seabrights.

Speech Production vs Comprehension

  • Speech production involves the production of spoken words, while comprehension involves perceiving and understanding spoken words.

Spoken Word Recognition

  • We match the acoustic form of spoken words to a stored set of words in our vocabulary, known as the phonological lexicon.
  • The process of matching is called lexical access, and it involves competition between similar sounding words.
  • The access units are debated, but the consensus is that speech recognition involves a cohort of words that are initially considered as candidates, with words getting eliminated as more evidence accumulates.

Cohort Model

  • In lexical access, many spoken words are initially considered as candidates, but words get eliminated as more evidence accumulates.
  • The uniqueness point is reached when the acoustic input unambiguously corresponds to only one known word.
  • The time taken to recognize a word depends on how early or late the uniqueness point occurs.
  • Linguistic factors that influence recognition include frequency of a word, imageability of a word, and contextual information.

Words in Context

  • The cohort model explains how a single word is recognized, but words are normally spoken in the context of a discourse.
  • EEG studies show that out-of-context words induce a N400 response, while grammatical errors induce a P600 response.

Aphasia

  • Aphasia is a disorder of language due to brain damage on the left hemisphere, causing problems in speech perception, speech production, and writing.

Language Specialization

  • Broca's area is located in the frontal lobe and is responsible for speech production, with damage causing Broca's aphasia.
  • Wernicke's area is located in the temporal lobe and is responsible for language comprehension, with damage causing Wernicke's aphasia.
  • Broca's aphasia patients have trouble with fluent speech, while Wernicke's aphasia patients have trouble with comprehending language.

Sentence Comprehension

  • Words have meaning (semantics) and syntactic roles (grammatical classes such as nouns and verbs).
  • Syntax enables the listener to figure out who is doing what to whom.
  • Broca's aphasia is related to agrammatism, or the loss of grammar.

Broca's Area

  • Broca's area has two functional sub-divisions: the posterior division (BA44) related to syntactic complexity, and the anterior division (BA45) related to working memory and meaning.
  • Syntax and semantics are separable but not completely independent, and Broca's area can be viewed as an integration site.

Retrieval of Spoken Words

  • When producing speech, three types of information need to be retrieved: lexicalization (the selection of a word based on meaning), grammatical properties, and form of the word (syllables, phonemes).

Speech Errors

  • Speech errors include Freudian slips, malapropisms, spoonerisms, and tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon.
  • Anomia is a word-finding difficulty due to brain damage, resulting in a constant state of tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon.
  • Proper name anomia is a severe difficulty in retrieving proper names.

Articulation

  • Articulation is the final stage of speech, associated with the basal ganglia and insula.
  • Damage to the insula results in apraxia for speech, or difficulties in shaping the vocal tract.
  • Damage to the basal ganglia results in dysarthria, or impaired muscular contractions.

Literacy

  • Literacy is the ability to read and write, enabling communication without face-to-face contact.
  • It is an expert system derived from a core set of other skills such as visual recognition, manipulation of sounds, learning, and memory.
  • Visual word recognition involves processing letter strings as a whole, rather than one by one.
  • The visual lexicon is a storage for how words are written.
  • The word superiority effect states that it is easier to detect a letter in the context of a word or nonsense letter string than in a random letter string or in isolation.
  • The visual word form area is a dedicated cognitive mechanism for visual lexicon, located in the left mid-fusiform gyrus, and also responds to visual objects and Braille reading.

Acquired Reading Deficiencies

  • Central dyslexia: disruption of reading arising after computation of a visual word form.
    • Surface dyslexia: reading nonwords and regularly spelled words better than irregularly spelled words.
    • Phonological dyslexia: reading real words better than nonwords.
    • Deep dyslexia: real word reading prone to semantic errors.
  • Peripheral dyslexia: disruption of reading arising up to the level of computation of a visual word form.
    • Pure alexia: an acquired difficulty in reading words that leads to letter-by-letter reading.

fMRI Studies

  • Multiple areas involved in literacy, predominantly left-lateralized.
    • Inferior frontal lobe (Broca's area).
    • Inferior parietal lobe (Wernicke's and angular gyrus – verbal working memory).
    • Anterior and mid-temporal lobes (semantic memory).
  • Reading uses similar brain regions across different languages, albeit to varying degrees.

Spelling and Writing

  • Dysgraphia: difficulties in spelling, with similar deficiencies as central dyslexia.
    • Deep dysgraphia: real word spelling prone to semantic errors.
  • Dysgraphia is generally multimodal, with patients producing similar errors in writing, typing, or oral spelling.
  • Evidence suggests separate written versus oral letter name output codes in spelling, indicating involvement of motor codes in writing.

Numeracy

Universal Numeracy

  • Numeracy is not limited to math; humans and other species have numerical abilities that enable estimation of quantity and basic calculations.
  • Infants, unschooled, cavemen, and non-human animals all possess numerical abilities.
  • Fundamental sense of numeracy is universal, except for dyscalculia.

Numbers

  • Non-symbolic number processing is universal.
  • Ability to perform tasks becomes harder with increasing sets, even if the ratio remains the same.
  • We can subitize (enumerate an exact quantity of objects without counting them) up to 4 items.
  • Numbers above 4 can only be processed approximately rather than exactly in the absence of language.

Processing Symbolic Numbers

  • Distance effect: faster decision-making when the distance between two numbers is large.
  • Size effect: easier judgment of larger numbers when they are small.

Neural Subtrates

  • Number meaning: not only countable quantities but also continuous and uncountable quantities are processed by the number system.

Numbers and Space

  • SNARC effect (Spatial-Numerical Association of Response Codes): cultural variations and other SNARC-like effects.

Triple Code Model

    1. Abstract (semantic) magnitude.
    1. Verbal store of numbers and operations.
    1. Visual representation for numerals (digits) and workbench for certain calculations.

Executive Functions

  • Executive functions: complex processes that optimize performance in situations requiring multiple cognitive processes
  • Not tied to a specific domain (e.g., memory, language, perception) but have a meta-cognitive, supervisory, or controlling role
  • Related to prefrontal cortex (PFC)

Problem-Solving

  • Problem-solving involves generating a solution with a given endpoint (goal) and optional starting point (objects)
  • Tests: Tower of London, FAS test, Cognitive Estimates Test
  • PFC lesions often lead to poor problem-solving

Overcoming Habitual Responses

  • Inhibition: reducing the likelihood of a particular thought/action
  • Related to medial PFC, specifically anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and pre-SMA
  • Example: Stroop task (name the color of the ink and ignore reading the color name)

Overcoming Potent Responses

  • Inhibition: reducing the likelihood of a particular thought/action
  • Related to medial PFC, specifically ACC and pre-SMA
  • Example: Go/No-Go task (respond to frequent stimulus, but withhold response to another stimulus)

Task Switching

  • Requires PFC activation and discarding a previous schema and establishing a new one
  • PFC damage leads to perseveration (failure to shift)
  • Example: Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (adjust responses to new rule)
  • Switch cost: slowing of response time due to discarding a previous schema and setting up a new one

Multi-Tasking

  • Carrying out several tasks in succession, requiring task switching and maintaining future goals
  • Patients with anterior prefrontal cortex lesions may be impaired at multi-tasking
  • Example: Six Element Test (patients with prefrontal lesions may fail to switch tasks)

Decision Making

  • Decisions are not solely based on rationality, even without brain damage
  • Framing or social justice perception can affect decisions
  • Involves ACC and OFC

Somatic Marker Hypothesis

  • Somatic markers link previous situations stored in the cortex and the "feeling" of those situations stored in emotional and bodily response regions
  • Located in vmPFC, influencing ongoing behavior in situations where feelings are critical

Iowa Gambling Test and Delay Discounting

  • Iowa Gambling Test: a decision-making task involving risks and rewards
  • Delay discounting: choosing between current and future rewards
  • OFC lesions lead to planning failure and impulsive behavior

Multiple Demand Network

  • Lateral PFC, ACC, and intraparietal sulcus are involved in cognitive control
  • Not separate subdivisions, but a single network
  • Fluid vs crystallized intelligence

Hemispheric Differences

  • Not found in other primates; humans have more lateralized brain function
  • Left lateral PFC: specialized in problem-solving, right lateral PFC: task monitoring

Anterior Cingulate Cortex (ACC)

  • Considered part of limbic system
  • Functionally two different regions: dorsal ACC (cognitive division) and rostral ACC (affective division)
  • Involved in error detection and recalibration of task performance

Emotions

  • Emotions are states associated with stimuli that are rewarding or punishing, guiding behavior and social interactions.
  • Emotions tag stimuli with emotional states, even if they are not naturally affective.
  • Emotions are critical for guiding social behavior, including mentalizing and mirroring others' emotions and mental states.

Theories of Emotion

  • Darwin's theory: human emotions possess continuity with their animal counterparts, with conserved expressions across species.
  • James-Lange Theory: self-perception of bodily changes produces emotional experience, but contemporary views suggest bodily experiences modify emotional experiences.
  • Cannon-Bard Theory: bodily responses occur after the emotion itself, with emotions coming before expression.

Papez Circuit and Limbic Brain

  • Papez circuit: cingulate cortex, hippocampus, hypothalamus, and anterior nucleus of the thalamus.
  • Limbic brain: Papez circuit + amygdala and orbitofrontal cortex.
  • Key regions are secondary to emotions, such as hippocampus and hypothalamus.

Paul Ekman's Basic Emotions

  • Dr. Paul Ekman's work on expression and gesture and their role in emotion and deception.

Other Contemporary Approaches

  • Feldman-Barrett theory: all emotions tap into a core affect system organized along two dimensions: pleasant-unpleasant and activation-deactivation.
  • Rolls theory: constructionist approach, concerned with dimensions of reward and punishment, their presence/absence, and intensity.

Neural Substrates

  • Amygdala: involved in memory, especially emotional content, fear learning, and recognizing fear.
  • Insula: involved in bodily perception, pain and taste perception, disgust, and interoception.
  • OFC (Orbitofrontal Cortex): computes current value of a stimulus, linked to subjective reports of pleasantness.
  • Anterior Cingulate: involved in error monitoring, bodily responses to emotions, and social aspect, empathy, and exclusion.
  • Ventral Striatum: reward-related, calculates difference between predicted and actual reward.

Reading Faces

  • Facial Identity: fusiform face area.
  • Expression Recognition & Gaze Processing: superior temporal sulcus.
  • Expressions: involve the extended system, including amygdala and insula.
  • Simulation Theory: we understand others by vicariously producing their current state in ourselves.

Reading Faces (continued)

  • Social Referencing: emotional response of another person may lead to avoidance or interaction with a previously neutral stimulus.
  • Capgras Syndrome: patients can consciously recognize the person but lack an emotional response to them, believing they were replaced with body doubles.

Eye Gaze Information

  • Eyes Inform About Emotions: important for one-to-one communication.
  • Eye Gaze: one can infer desire (next move) from eye gaze.

Reading Minds

  • Theory-of-Mind: the ability to represent the mental states of others (e.g., their beliefs, desires, intentions).
  • Empathy: the ability to appreciate others' points of view and share their experiences.
  • Mirror System: neural circuits or regions that disregard the distinction between self and other.

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This quiz covers the basics of speech and language, including the physical properties of sound waves and the cognitive processes involved in producing and comprehending language.

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