Cognitive Neuroscience: Speech and Language
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Questions and Answers

What is the typical response in EEG studies when words are presented out of context in a sentence?

  • Both P600 and N400 response
  • P600 response
  • No response
  • N400 response (correct)

    • What is the main problem faced by patients with Broca's aphasia?

  • Trouble with fluent speech production (correct)
  • Difficulty in comprehending language
  • Loss of semantics
  • Inability to read

    • What is the primary function of Wernicke's area in language processing?

  • Language production
  • Word semantics
  • Syntax processing
  • Language comprehension (correct)

    • What is the main difference between Broca's and Wernicke's aphasia?

    <p>Broca's aphasia affects language production, while Wernicke's aphasia affects language comprehension</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used to describe the loss of grammar in Broca's aphasia?

    <p>Agrammatism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the process of selecting a word based on its meaning?

    <p>Lexicalization</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the functional subdivision of Broca's area related to syntactic complexity?

    <p>Posterior division (BA44)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the response typically associated with grammatical errors?

    <p>P600 response</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of speech error involves the substitution of one word for another that reflects the speaker's hidden intentions?

    <p>Freudian slip</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the inability to retrieve the correct word, even though the concept is known?

    <p>Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the functionality of Broca's area, as viewed in the context of language processing?

    <p>Integration site for syntax and semantics</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for word-finding difficulties due to brain damage?

    <p>Anomia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for severe difficulties in retrieving proper names?

    <p>Proper name anomia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What brain region is associated with the final stage of speech?

    <p>Insula</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for difficulties in shaping the vocal tract due to damage to the insula?

    <p>Apraxia for speech</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for impaired muscular contractions of the speech articulators due to damage to the basal ganglia?

    <p>Dysarthria</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary means of transferring ideas from one individual to another?

    <p>Vibration of molecules in the air</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the storage of spoken words in our vocabulary?

    <p>Phonological lexicon</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the process by which we match the acoustic form of a spoken word to a stored set of words in our vocabulary?

    <p>Lexical access</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the Cohort Model, what is the point at which the acoustic input unambiguously corresponds to only one known word?

    <p>Uniqueness point</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the initial set of words that are considered as candidates during lexical access?

    <p>Cohort of words</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one of the linguistic factors that influences word recognition, according to the Cohort Model?

    <p>Frequency of a word</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the ability of a word to evoke a vivid mental image?

    <p>Imageability</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the parrot that learned to use human-like language, as demonstrated in a famous YouTube video?

    <p>Alex</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of literacy?

    <p>To enable communication without face-to-face contact</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do we process letter strings in visual word recognition?

    <p>As whole, without considering individual letters</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the phenomenon where it is easier to detect a letter in a word or nonsense letter string than in a random letter string?

    <p>Word superiority effect</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where is the Visual Word Form Area located in the brain?

    <p>Left mid fusiform gyrus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the visual lexicon?

    <p>To process and store written words</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the relationship between the Visual Word Form Area and Braille reading?

    <p>The Visual Word Form Area is also active during Braille reading</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the maximum number of items that can be subitized?

    <p>4</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the theory that explains the processing of symbolic numbers?

    <p>Triple Code Model</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the phenomenon where it is faster to decide which number is larger when the distance between two numbers is large?

    <p>Distance effect</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the ability to process non-countable quantities, such as length or area?

    <p>Magnitude processing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the phenomenon where smaller numbers are easier to compare than larger numbers?

    <p>Size effect</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the model that explains how we process numbers in our brain?

    <p>Triple Code Model</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the association between numbers and spatial locations?

    <p>SNARC effect</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the Triple Code Model, what is the third component of number processing?

    <p>Visual representation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the area that might be a computational hub that links together different brain regions?

    <p>To facilitate communication between different brain regions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of dyslexia is characterized by reading nonwords and regularly spelled words better than irregularly spelled words?

    <p>Surface dyslexia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the disruption of reading arising up to the level of computation of a visual word form?

    <p>Peripheral dyslexia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which brain region is involved in verbal working memory?

    <p>Inferior parietal lobe</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for difficulties in spelling that are similar to central dyslexia?

    <p>Dysgraphia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of dysgraphia is characterized by real word spelling prone to semantic error?

    <p>Deep dysgraphia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the universal ability that enables humans and other species to estimate quantity and perform basic calculations?

    <p>Numeracy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for an acquired difficulty in reading words that leads to letter-by-letter reading?

    <p>Pure alexia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary reason for the increased cost of switching from a harder to an easier task?

    <p>The difference in difficulty level affects the brain's ability to switch tasks efficiently</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which region is involved in error detection and is active in the trial immediately after an error?

    <p>Anterior cingulate cortex</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which brain region is affected in patients with impaired multi-tasking abilities?

    <p>Anterior prefrontal cortex</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the left lateral prefrontal cortex?

    <p>Problem solving</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of somatic markers according to the Somatic Marker Hypothesis?

    <p>To regulate ongoing behavior in critical situations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of executive functions in cognitive processes?

    <p>To take on a meta-cognitive, supervisory, or controlling role</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cognitive process is often tested by giving an end point and a set of objects?

    <p>Problem-solving</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the functional division of the anterior cingulate cortex that is involved in cognitive control?

    <p>Cognitive division</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between hot and cold stimuli in the context of decision-making?

    <p>Hot stimuli are related to emotional decision-making, while cold stimuli are related to rational decision-making</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of human brain organization that is not found in other primates?

    <p>Lateralization of language</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the prefrontal cortex in executive functions?

    <p>To control and supervise other cognitive processes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the OFC in the context of delay discounting?

    <p>To regulate impulsive behavior in decision-making</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the Multiple Demand Network?

    <p>To regulate cognitive control in the lateral PFC</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cognitive process is related to the medial prefrontal cortex and the anterior cingulate cortex?

    <p>Overcoming habitual responses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the process of relating information currently held in mind back to the task requirements?

    <p>Task monitoring</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the slowing of response time due to discarding a previous schema and setting up a new one?

    <p>Switch cost</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the region involved in the cognitive mechanism that monitors for errors and recalibrates task performance?

    <p>Anterior cingulate cortex</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between the Iowa Gambling Task and the Delay Discounting task?

    <p>The Iowa Gambling Task involves reward processing, while Delay Discounting involves risk assessment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cognitive process is often tested by the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test?

    <p>Task switching</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the Six Element Test?

    <p>To test multitasking abilities in patients with prefrontal lesions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the pre-supplementary motor area (pre-SMA) in executive functions?

    <p>To inhibit habitual responses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which cognitive process is related to the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex?

    <p>Problem-solving</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which brain region is responsible for facial identity recognition?

    <p>Fusiform face area</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the mirror system in social cognition?

    <p>To simulate others' mental states</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the ability to represent the mental states of others?

    <p>Theory-of-mind</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which neurological disorder is characterized by a lack of emotional response to familiar faces?

    <p>Capgras syndrome</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of eye gaze information in social communication?

    <p>To infer desires and intentions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the process of understanding others' emotions and actions by vicariously producing their current state in ourselves?

    <p>Simulation theory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the amygdala in relation to emotional content?

    <p>Fear learning and recognition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the Feldman-Barrett theory, what are the two dimensions of the core affect system?

    <p>Pleasant-unpleasant and activation-deactivation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which brain region is involved in the perception of disgust, including moral disgust?

    <p>Insula</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the orbitofrontal cortex in relation to rewards?

    <p>Computing the current value of a stimulus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the anterior cingulate in emotion processing?

    <p>Bodily responses to emotions, including empathy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the ventral striatum in emotion processing?

    <p>Reward-related processing, including dopamine release</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of lesions to the insula in terms of emotion processing?

    <p>Disrupted disgust perception and moral judgment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the Kluver-Bucy syndrome in relation to emotional processing?

    <p>Examining objects with the mouth and altered emotional response</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of emotions in guiding social behavior?

    <p>To mentalize and mirror others' emotions and mental states</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Darwin, what is the relationship between human emotions and their animal counterparts?

    <p>Human emotions possess continuity with their animal counterparts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main difference between the James-Lange Theory and the Cannon-Bard Theory?

    <p>The James-Lange Theory states that emotions come after expressions, while the Cannon-Bard Theory states that emotions come before expressions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the Papez Circuit and the Limbic Brain in emotions?

    <p>To regulate emotional responses to rewarding and punishing stimuli</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the key concept in Paul Ekman's theory of basic emotions?

    <p>Emotions are universal and expressed through facial expressions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the hypothalamus in the Cannon-Bard Theory of emotions?

    <p>To regulate emotional responses to rewarding and punishing stimuli</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the relationship between emotional experiences and bodily changes, according to contemporary views?

    <p>Bodily changes modify emotional experiences</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of mentalizing and mirroring in social behavior?

    <p>To extract information and guide social behavior</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the mirror system in social cognition?

    <p>To simulate others' mental states</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the ability to represent the mental states of others?

    <p>Theory-of-mind</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the superior temporal sulcus in facial processing?

    <p>Expression recognition and gaze processing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the condition characterized by a lack of emotional response to familiar faces?

    <p>Capgras syndrome</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of eyes in social communication?

    <p>To convey emotional information</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the process of associating the emotional response of another person with a neutral stimulus?

    <p>Social referencing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of emotions in guiding social behavior?

    <p>To extract information through mentalizing and mirroring</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Darwin, what is the characteristic of human emotions?

    <p>They possess continuity with their animal counterparts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary concept of the James-Lange Theory?

    <p>Emotion comes after expression</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of the hypothalamus in the Cannon-Bard Theory?

    <p>It is responsible for bodily responses after the emotion itself</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the circuit involving the cingulate cortex, hippocampus, hypothalamus, and anterior nucleus of the thalamus?

    <p>Papez circuit</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the limbic brain?

    <p>To process basic emotions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary concept of Paul Ekman's theory of emotions?

    <p>Basic emotions are innate and universal</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of emotions in guiding behavior?

    <p>To tag stimuli with emotional states</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of the amygdala in emotional processing?

    <p>Processing the emotional content of memories</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which neural substrate is responsible for error monitoring and responding to pain?

    <p>Anterior cingulate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the Feldman-Barrett theory, what are the two dimensions of the core affect system?

    <p>Pleasant-unpleasant and activation-deactivation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the insula in emotional processing?

    <p>Monitoring the internal state of the body</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of the ventral striatum in emotional processing?

    <p>Reward-related processing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of the Kluver-Bucy syndrome?

    <p>Unusual tameness and emotional blunting</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) in emotional processing?

    <p>Computing the current value of a stimulus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which neural substrate is involved in disgust perception, including moral disgust?

    <p>Insula</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Speech and Language

    • Speech is a means of transferring ideas from one individual to another through the vibration of molecules in the air.
    • Language is a social engagement that involves deducting what others know or believe.
    • Animals may have language, as demonstrated by Washoe, Kanzi, and Golden seabrights.

    Speech Production vs Comprehension

    • Speech production involves the production of spoken words, while comprehension involves perceiving and understanding spoken words.

    Spoken Word Recognition

    • We match the acoustic form of spoken words to a stored set of words in our vocabulary, known as the phonological lexicon.
    • The process of matching is called lexical access, and it involves competition between similar sounding words.
    • The access units are debated, but the consensus is that speech recognition involves a cohort of words that are initially considered as candidates, with words getting eliminated as more evidence accumulates.

    Cohort Model

    • In lexical access, many spoken words are initially considered as candidates, but words get eliminated as more evidence accumulates.
    • The uniqueness point is reached when the acoustic input unambiguously corresponds to only one known word.
    • The time taken to recognize a word depends on how early or late the uniqueness point occurs.
    • Linguistic factors that influence recognition include frequency of a word, imageability of a word, and contextual information.

    Words in Context

    • The cohort model explains how a single word is recognized, but words are normally spoken in the context of a discourse.
    • EEG studies show that out-of-context words induce a N400 response, while grammatical errors induce a P600 response.

    Aphasia

    • Aphasia is a disorder of language due to brain damage on the left hemisphere, causing problems in speech perception, speech production, and writing.

    Language Specialization

    • Broca's area is located in the frontal lobe and is responsible for speech production, with damage causing Broca's aphasia.
    • Wernicke's area is located in the temporal lobe and is responsible for language comprehension, with damage causing Wernicke's aphasia.
    • Broca's aphasia patients have trouble with fluent speech, while Wernicke's aphasia patients have trouble with comprehending language.

    Sentence Comprehension

    • Words have meaning (semantics) and syntactic roles (grammatical classes such as nouns and verbs).
    • Syntax enables the listener to figure out who is doing what to whom.
    • Broca's aphasia is related to agrammatism, or the loss of grammar.

    Broca's Area

    • Broca's area has two functional sub-divisions: the posterior division (BA44) related to syntactic complexity, and the anterior division (BA45) related to working memory and meaning.
    • Syntax and semantics are separable but not completely independent, and Broca's area can be viewed as an integration site.

    Retrieval of Spoken Words

    • When producing speech, three types of information need to be retrieved: lexicalization (the selection of a word based on meaning), grammatical properties, and form of the word (syllables, phonemes).

    Speech Errors

    • Speech errors include Freudian slips, malapropisms, spoonerisms, and tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon.
    • Anomia is a word-finding difficulty due to brain damage, resulting in a constant state of tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon.
    • Proper name anomia is a severe difficulty in retrieving proper names.

    Articulation

    • Articulation is the final stage of speech, associated with the basal ganglia and insula.
    • Damage to the insula results in apraxia for speech, or difficulties in shaping the vocal tract.
    • Damage to the basal ganglia results in dysarthria, or impaired muscular contractions.

    Literacy

    • Literacy is the ability to read and write, enabling communication without face-to-face contact.
    • It is an expert system derived from a core set of other skills such as visual recognition, manipulation of sounds, learning, and memory.
    • Visual word recognition involves processing letter strings as a whole, rather than one by one.
    • The visual lexicon is a storage for how words are written.
    • The word superiority effect states that it is easier to detect a letter in the context of a word or nonsense letter string than in a random letter string or in isolation.
    • The visual word form area is a dedicated cognitive mechanism for visual lexicon, located in the left mid-fusiform gyrus, and also responds to visual objects and Braille reading.

    Acquired Reading Deficiencies

    • Central dyslexia: disruption of reading arising after computation of a visual word form.
      • Surface dyslexia: reading nonwords and regularly spelled words better than irregularly spelled words.
      • Phonological dyslexia: reading real words better than nonwords.
      • Deep dyslexia: real word reading prone to semantic errors.
    • Peripheral dyslexia: disruption of reading arising up to the level of computation of a visual word form.
      • Pure alexia: an acquired difficulty in reading words that leads to letter-by-letter reading.

    fMRI Studies

    • Multiple areas involved in literacy, predominantly left-lateralized.
      • Inferior frontal lobe (Broca's area).
      • Inferior parietal lobe (Wernicke's and angular gyrus – verbal working memory).
      • Anterior and mid-temporal lobes (semantic memory).
    • Reading uses similar brain regions across different languages, albeit to varying degrees.

    Spelling and Writing

    • Dysgraphia: difficulties in spelling, with similar deficiencies as central dyslexia.
      • Deep dysgraphia: real word spelling prone to semantic errors.
    • Dysgraphia is generally multimodal, with patients producing similar errors in writing, typing, or oral spelling.
    • Evidence suggests separate written versus oral letter name output codes in spelling, indicating involvement of motor codes in writing.

    Numeracy

    Universal Numeracy

    • Numeracy is not limited to math; humans and other species have numerical abilities that enable estimation of quantity and basic calculations.
    • Infants, unschooled, cavemen, and non-human animals all possess numerical abilities.
    • Fundamental sense of numeracy is universal, except for dyscalculia.

    Numbers

    • Non-symbolic number processing is universal.
    • Ability to perform tasks becomes harder with increasing sets, even if the ratio remains the same.
    • We can subitize (enumerate an exact quantity of objects without counting them) up to 4 items.
    • Numbers above 4 can only be processed approximately rather than exactly in the absence of language.

    Processing Symbolic Numbers

    • Distance effect: faster decision-making when the distance between two numbers is large.
    • Size effect: easier judgment of larger numbers when they are small.

    Neural Subtrates

    • Number meaning: not only countable quantities but also continuous and uncountable quantities are processed by the number system.

    Numbers and Space

    • SNARC effect (Spatial-Numerical Association of Response Codes): cultural variations and other SNARC-like effects.

    Triple Code Model

      1. Abstract (semantic) magnitude.
      1. Verbal store of numbers and operations.
      1. Visual representation for numerals (digits) and workbench for certain calculations.

    Executive Functions

    • Executive functions: complex processes that optimize performance in situations requiring multiple cognitive processes
    • Not tied to a specific domain (e.g., memory, language, perception) but have a meta-cognitive, supervisory, or controlling role
    • Related to prefrontal cortex (PFC)

    Problem-Solving

    • Problem-solving involves generating a solution with a given endpoint (goal) and optional starting point (objects)
    • Tests: Tower of London, FAS test, Cognitive Estimates Test
    • PFC lesions often lead to poor problem-solving

    Overcoming Habitual Responses

    • Inhibition: reducing the likelihood of a particular thought/action
    • Related to medial PFC, specifically anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and pre-SMA
    • Example: Stroop task (name the color of the ink and ignore reading the color name)

    Overcoming Potent Responses

    • Inhibition: reducing the likelihood of a particular thought/action
    • Related to medial PFC, specifically ACC and pre-SMA
    • Example: Go/No-Go task (respond to frequent stimulus, but withhold response to another stimulus)

    Task Switching

    • Requires PFC activation and discarding a previous schema and establishing a new one
    • PFC damage leads to perseveration (failure to shift)
    • Example: Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (adjust responses to new rule)
    • Switch cost: slowing of response time due to discarding a previous schema and setting up a new one

    Multi-Tasking

    • Carrying out several tasks in succession, requiring task switching and maintaining future goals
    • Patients with anterior prefrontal cortex lesions may be impaired at multi-tasking
    • Example: Six Element Test (patients with prefrontal lesions may fail to switch tasks)

    Decision Making

    • Decisions are not solely based on rationality, even without brain damage
    • Framing or social justice perception can affect decisions
    • Involves ACC and OFC

    Somatic Marker Hypothesis

    • Somatic markers link previous situations stored in the cortex and the "feeling" of those situations stored in emotional and bodily response regions
    • Located in vmPFC, influencing ongoing behavior in situations where feelings are critical

    Iowa Gambling Test and Delay Discounting

    • Iowa Gambling Test: a decision-making task involving risks and rewards
    • Delay discounting: choosing between current and future rewards
    • OFC lesions lead to planning failure and impulsive behavior

    Multiple Demand Network

    • Lateral PFC, ACC, and intraparietal sulcus are involved in cognitive control
    • Not separate subdivisions, but a single network
    • Fluid vs crystallized intelligence

    Hemispheric Differences

    • Not found in other primates; humans have more lateralized brain function
    • Left lateral PFC: specialized in problem-solving, right lateral PFC: task monitoring

    Anterior Cingulate Cortex (ACC)

    • Considered part of limbic system
    • Functionally two different regions: dorsal ACC (cognitive division) and rostral ACC (affective division)
    • Involved in error detection and recalibration of task performance

    Emotions

    • Emotions are states associated with stimuli that are rewarding or punishing, guiding behavior and social interactions.
    • Emotions tag stimuli with emotional states, even if they are not naturally affective.
    • Emotions are critical for guiding social behavior, including mentalizing and mirroring others' emotions and mental states.

    Theories of Emotion

    • Darwin's theory: human emotions possess continuity with their animal counterparts, with conserved expressions across species.
    • James-Lange Theory: self-perception of bodily changes produces emotional experience, but contemporary views suggest bodily experiences modify emotional experiences.
    • Cannon-Bard Theory: bodily responses occur after the emotion itself, with emotions coming before expression.

    Papez Circuit and Limbic Brain

    • Papez circuit: cingulate cortex, hippocampus, hypothalamus, and anterior nucleus of the thalamus.
    • Limbic brain: Papez circuit + amygdala and orbitofrontal cortex.
    • Key regions are secondary to emotions, such as hippocampus and hypothalamus.

    Paul Ekman's Basic Emotions

    • Dr. Paul Ekman's work on expression and gesture and their role in emotion and deception.

    Other Contemporary Approaches

    • Feldman-Barrett theory: all emotions tap into a core affect system organized along two dimensions: pleasant-unpleasant and activation-deactivation.
    • Rolls theory: constructionist approach, concerned with dimensions of reward and punishment, their presence/absence, and intensity.

    Neural Substrates

    • Amygdala: involved in memory, especially emotional content, fear learning, and recognizing fear.
    • Insula: involved in bodily perception, pain and taste perception, disgust, and interoception.
    • OFC (Orbitofrontal Cortex): computes current value of a stimulus, linked to subjective reports of pleasantness.
    • Anterior Cingulate: involved in error monitoring, bodily responses to emotions, and social aspect, empathy, and exclusion.
    • Ventral Striatum: reward-related, calculates difference between predicted and actual reward.

    Reading Faces

    • Facial Identity: fusiform face area.
    • Expression Recognition & Gaze Processing: superior temporal sulcus.
    • Expressions: involve the extended system, including amygdala and insula.
    • Simulation Theory: we understand others by vicariously producing their current state in ourselves.

    Reading Faces (continued)

    • Social Referencing: emotional response of another person may lead to avoidance or interaction with a previously neutral stimulus.
    • Capgras Syndrome: patients can consciously recognize the person but lack an emotional response to them, believing they were replaced with body doubles.

    Eye Gaze Information

    • Eyes Inform About Emotions: important for one-to-one communication.
    • Eye Gaze: one can infer desire (next move) from eye gaze.

    Reading Minds

    • Theory-of-Mind: the ability to represent the mental states of others (e.g., their beliefs, desires, intentions).
    • Empathy: the ability to appreciate others' points of view and share their experiences.
    • Mirror System: neural circuits or regions that disregard the distinction between self and other.

    Emotions

    • Emotions are states associated with stimuli that are rewarding or punishing, guiding behavior and social interactions.
    • Emotions tag stimuli with emotional states, even if they are not naturally affective.
    • Emotions are critical for guiding social behavior, including mentalizing and mirroring others' emotions and mental states.

    Theories of Emotion

    • Darwin's theory: human emotions possess continuity with their animal counterparts, with conserved expressions across species.
    • James-Lange Theory: self-perception of bodily changes produces emotional experience, but contemporary views suggest bodily experiences modify emotional experiences.
    • Cannon-Bard Theory: bodily responses occur after the emotion itself, with emotions coming before expression.

    Papez Circuit and Limbic Brain

    • Papez circuit: cingulate cortex, hippocampus, hypothalamus, and anterior nucleus of the thalamus.
    • Limbic brain: Papez circuit + amygdala and orbitofrontal cortex.
    • Key regions are secondary to emotions, such as hippocampus and hypothalamus.

    Paul Ekman's Basic Emotions

    • Dr. Paul Ekman's work on expression and gesture and their role in emotion and deception.

    Other Contemporary Approaches

    • Feldman-Barrett theory: all emotions tap into a core affect system organized along two dimensions: pleasant-unpleasant and activation-deactivation.
    • Rolls theory: constructionist approach, concerned with dimensions of reward and punishment, their presence/absence, and intensity.

    Neural Substrates

    • Amygdala: involved in memory, especially emotional content, fear learning, and recognizing fear.
    • Insula: involved in bodily perception, pain and taste perception, disgust, and interoception.
    • OFC (Orbitofrontal Cortex): computes current value of a stimulus, linked to subjective reports of pleasantness.
    • Anterior Cingulate: involved in error monitoring, bodily responses to emotions, and social aspect, empathy, and exclusion.
    • Ventral Striatum: reward-related, calculates difference between predicted and actual reward.

    Reading Faces

    • Facial Identity: fusiform face area.
    • Expression Recognition & Gaze Processing: superior temporal sulcus.
    • Expressions: involve the extended system, including amygdala and insula.
    • Simulation Theory: we understand others by vicariously producing their current state in ourselves.

    Reading Faces (continued)

    • Social Referencing: emotional response of another person may lead to avoidance or interaction with a previously neutral stimulus.
    • Capgras Syndrome: patients can consciously recognize the person but lack an emotional response to them, believing they were replaced with body doubles.

    Eye Gaze Information

    • Eyes Inform About Emotions: important for one-to-one communication.
    • Eye Gaze: one can infer desire (next move) from eye gaze.

    Reading Minds

    • Theory-of-Mind: the ability to represent the mental states of others (e.g., their beliefs, desires, intentions).
    • Empathy: the ability to appreciate others' points of view and share their experiences.
    • Mirror System: neural circuits or regions that disregard the distinction between self and other.

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    Explore the brain's role in speech and language, including auditory processing, comprehension, and social engagement. Learn about animal language, including sign language and lexigrams.

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