PSIO441 Unit 2 Study Guide: Chapters 13 & 14
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Questions and Answers

Which of the following best describes the role of the diaphragm during inspiration?

  • It relaxes and decreases intrapulmonary pressure.
  • It contracts and flattens, increasing thoracic volume. (correct)
  • It becomes dome-shaped, promoting expiration.
  • It does not influence respiratory mechanics.

What physiological changes occur during resting expiration?

  • Elastic recoil is diminished, leading to prolonged breath retention.
  • Volume of the chest cavity increases, causing decreased intrapulmonary pressure.
  • Diaphragm and chest wall muscles relax, causing volume to decrease. (correct)
  • Intrapulmonary pressure falls below atmospheric pressure, allowing air to enter.

Which of the following correctly characterizes forced expiration?

  • It is less effective in individuals with emphysema.
  • It primarily relies on the diaphragm alone.
  • It occurs only during normal quiet breathing.
  • It utilizes the internal intercostals and abdominal wall muscles. (correct)

What effect does parasympathetic stimulation have on the airways?

<p>It leads to bronchoconstriction, increasing resistance. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about sympathetic stimulation in the airways is accurate?

<p>It promotes bronchodilation and increased airflow. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of peripheral chemoreceptors in the body?

<p>To detect changes in arterial CO2 levels and pH. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes how peripheral chemoreceptors respond to low PaO2 levels?

<p>They increase firing as PaO2 falls below 80 mmHg. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary physiological adjustment that occurs during acclimatization at high altitude?

<p>Increase in hematocrit due to increased EPO. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of hypoxia is associated with a reduced concentration of hemoglobin?

<p>Anemic hypoxia. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the case of carbon monoxide poisoning, which of the following correctly describes the effect on hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen?

<p>It increases hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen by 200 times. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens to the P50 value in response to carbon monoxide exposure?

<p>It shifts to the left. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What initial response occurs in the body at high altitudes where PaO2 drops below 60 mmHg?

<p>Hyperventilation due to peripheral chemoreceptor stimulation. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic change observed in individuals with polycythemia?

<p>An increase in the number of red blood cells. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary stimulus for central chemoreceptors in regulating ventilation?

<p>Carbon dioxide levels in cerebrospinal fluid (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following correctly describes the adaptation of central chemoreceptors?

<p>They adapt to sustained hypercapnia within 12-24 hours. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Where are peripheral chemoreceptors located and what do they primarily sense?

<p>In the aorta and carotid arteries, responding to oxygen levels (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main effect of the Haldane effect on gas transport?

<p>It enhances the release of oxygen in deoxygenated blood. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the Bohr effect influence oxygen delivery to tissues?

<p>It causes hemoglobin to release more oxygen in low pH environments. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of carbon dioxide in the blood is transported as bicarbonate?

<p>90% (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do peripheral chemoreceptors play when oxygen levels are critically low?

<p>They increase ventilation to enhance oxygen intake. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the immediate response of the body to increased carbon dioxide concentrations?

<p>Increase in respiratory rate. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What results from carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning in relation to oxygen transport?

<p>Inhibition of hemoglobin's ability to carry oxygen. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of central chemoreceptors in relation to respiration?

<p>They regulate breathing rate based on blood carbon dioxide levels. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do peripheral chemoreceptors respond to hypoxia?

<p>They stimulate respiration by detecting low oxygen levels. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What physiological changes occur during acclimatization at high altitude?

<p>Increased red blood cell production and enhanced oxygen delivery. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of hypoxia is characterized by inadequate oxygen delivery to tissues despite normal levels of oxygen in the arterial blood?

<p>Stagnant hypoxia (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential effect of carbon monoxide poisoning on the body?

<p>Reduced oxygen transport due to displacement of oxygen from hemoglobin. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What change in blood pH would result from hypoventilation?

<p>Decreased blood pH levels indicating acidosis. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the body respond to high carbon dioxide levels resulting from poor alveolar ventilation?

<p>Increased respiratory drive to eliminate CO2. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the expected partial pressure of oxygen (PAO2) in the alveoli under normal conditions?

<p>$100 mmHg$ (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following factors does NOT affect the process of gas exchange in the lungs?

<p>Length of the trachea. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect does increased lung tissue frictional resistance have on ventilation?

<p>Increases the work of breathing. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following accurately describes the role of central chemoreceptors in regulating ventilation?

<p>They detect changes in CO2 concentrations in the cerebrospinal fluid. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of peripheral chemoreceptors in respiratory physiology?

<p>To sense changes in arterial partial pressures of oxygen (PaO2). (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the body physiologically respond to acclimatization at high altitudes?

<p>Increased respiratory rate helps compensate for low oxygen availability. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of hypoxia is characterized by insufficient oxygen delivery to tissues despite normal blood flow?

<p>Histotoxic hypoxia (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect does carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning have on hemoglobin?

<p>It binds to hemoglobin and prevents oxygen from being transported. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of a right shift in the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve?

<p>It enhances oxygen release from hemoglobin to tissues during increased metabolic activity. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

During hypoventilation, what primary change occurs in arterial blood gases?

<p>PaCO2 increases beyond normal levels. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which physiological change indicates the presence of stagnant hypoxia?

<p>Decreased oxygen delivery due to impaired blood circulation. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does a decrease in arterial blood hemoglobin saturation indicate when considering lung functionality?

<p>Potential lung dysfunction or impaired gas exchange. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is indicated by the P50 value in the context of hemoglobin saturation with oxygen?

<p>The partial pressure required for 50% saturation of hemoglobin with oxygen. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Peripheral Chemoreceptors

Sensory receptors that detect changes in blood oxygen, carbon dioxide, and pH levels, primarily in the arteries.

Carotid Bodies

Peripheral chemoreceptors near the carotid sinus, sending signals via the glossopharyngeal nerve to the brain.

Aortic Bodies

Peripheral chemoreceptors near the aortic arch, sending signals via the vagus nerve to the brain.

Hypoxia (low O2)

A condition where the body tissues do not receive enough oxygen.

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Altitude Stress

Physiological changes caused by lower atmospheric pressure and reduced oxygen levels at high altitudes.

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Acclimatization

The body's adaptive response to gradual changes in environmental conditions, like those happening at altitude.

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Polycythemia

Condition of elevated red blood cell count.

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CO Poisoning

Hb binds tightly to carbon monoxide (CO). Reduced blood oxygen levels from the body losing some of its oxygen-carrying function.

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Right Shift

A shift in the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve to the right, indicating more oxygen release to tissues.

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Left Shift

A shift in the oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve to the left, indicating less oxygen release to tissues.

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Normal Oxygen Release

Hemoglobin (Hb) is 75% saturated, meaning 25% of oxygen is released to tissues.

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Enhanced Oxygen Release

Hemoglobin (Hb) is 55% saturated, meaning 45% of oxygen is released to tissues.

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CO2 Transport (Bicarbonate)

90% of CO2 is carried as bicarbonate in blood plasma.

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Bohr Effect

Increased hydrogen (H+) ions bind to hemoglobin (Hb), causing oxygen release.

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Haldane Effect

Deoxygenated blood can carry more CO2, whereas oxygenated blood carries more O2.

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DRG

Inspiratory Center of neural control, controlling the diaphragm.

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Central Chemoreceptors

Brain-located sensors that respond to CO2 levels (via pH changes in Cerebrospinal Fluid - CSF).

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Peripheral Chemoreceptors

Sensors located outside the brain, which respond to O2 and CO2 levels in the blood.

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Hyperventilation

A condition where alveolar ventilation is increased, leading to lower than normal PACO2 levels and an alkalotic blood pH.

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Hypoventilation

A condition where alveolar ventilation is decreased, leading to higher than normal PACO2 levels and an acidotic blood pH.

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PACO2

Partial pressure of carbon dioxide in arterial blood.

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Hemoglobin (Hb) Role

Hb primarily transports oxygen in the blood; it's a crucial regulator of the total amount of oxygen.

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Hb Saturation (Lungs)

Blood leaving the lungs has a high oxygen concentration (98%)

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Hb Saturation (Tissue)

Blood leaving the tissues has a lower oxygen saturation (75%) due to oxygen release.

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Right Shift of Oxygen-Hb Curve

Decreased affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen, leading to enhanced oxygen release to tissues.

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P50

Partial pressure of oxygen at which hemoglobin is 50% saturated.

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Arterial Blood Gases

Reflect lung function.

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Venous Blood Gases

Reflect tissue function.

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Inspiration

The process of breathing in air, involving contraction of muscles to expand the lungs and decrease intrapulmonary pressure.

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Expiration

The process of breathing out air, involving relaxation of muscles and elastic recoil, increasing intrapulmonary pressure.

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Forced Expiration

Active exhalation requiring muscle contraction, especially of abdominal muscles.

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Parasympathetic Stimulation on Airways

Causes bronchoconstriction (narrowing of airways) and increased mucus production.

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Sympathetic Stimulation on Airways

Causes bronchodilation (widening of airways).

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Bronchodilation

Increased airway radius, decreasing airflow resistance, driven by sympathetic stimulation

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Work of Breathing

Energy expenditure for ventilation, overcoming elastic recoil, friction, and tissue resistance

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Alveolar Ventilation

Gas exchange between alveoli and environment driven by pressure gradients.

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Gas Partial Pressure

Pressure exerted by a gas within a mixture, driving gas diffusion.

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PO2 in Atmosphere

Partial pressure of oxygen in the atmosphere, around 160 mmHg.

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Alveolar PO2

Partial pressure of oxygen in the alveoli.Around 100 mmHg.

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Alveolar PCO2

Partial pressure of carbon dioxide in the alveoli. Around 40 mmHg.

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PACO2 Determination

Alveolar CO2 partial pressure is determined by CO2 production rate and removal rate.

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Abnormal Breathing Patterns

Affecting CO2 levels, potentially causing acidosis or alkalosis.

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Ventilation and Energy

Quiet breathing uses roughly 3% of total energy.

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Study Notes

PSIO441 – Unit 2 Study Guide

  • Exam covers chapters 13 and 14, using PowerPoint slides and notes.
  • Online resources and textbooks are supplemental.
  • Study guide is a comprehensive review, but not exhaustive for the exam.
  • Exam consists of 50 multiple choice, true/false, and sequential-order questions.
  • 23 questions focus on respiratory, 27 on renal.
  • Review session: Sunday 5-6 PM, in lecture hall. (Hosted by physiology graduate students)

Chapter 13 – Respiratory

  • Respiration is the sum of processes for Oâ‚‚ intake and COâ‚‚ release supporting cell metabolism.

    • Cellular Respiration occurs intracellularly in mitochondria, using Oâ‚‚ and producing COâ‚‚.
    • External Respiration encompasses the Oâ‚‚/COâ‚‚ exchange sequence between the environment and tissue cells.

  • POâ‚‚ and Hb Saturation have a direct relationship; as POâ‚‚ increases, Hb saturation increases.

  • Four Steps in External Respiration are:

    1. Ventilation: Air movement in and out of the lungs.
    2. Diffusion: Oâ‚‚ and COâ‚‚ exchange between air and blood in the lungs.
    3. Blood Transport: Oâ‚‚ and COâ‚‚ movement between lungs and body tissues.
    4. Diffusion: Oâ‚‚ and COâ‚‚ exchange between blood and tissues.

  • Lung Tissue vs. Airways:

    • Lungs are within the thoracic cavity.
    • Divided into lobes, segments, airways, alveoli, and pulmonary vessels.

  • Lung Anatomy: The conducting zone transports air without gas exchange; the respiratory zone facilitates gas exchange.

  • Conducting zone: trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, no gas exchange.

  • Respiratory Zone : respiratory bronchioles to alveoli, for gas exchange.

Additional Concepts

  • High surface area for capillary exchange is more efficient for gas exchange.

  • Alveoli are structures for gas exchange, with Type 1 and Type 2 alveolar cells.

  • Airways are the conduits (tubes) leading air to the alveoli.

  • Pulmonary surfactant: reduces surface tension of alveoli and prevents collapse.

  • Lung Compliance: the ease with which the lungs expand.

  • Lung Elasticity: allows to return to original shape during expiration.

  • Ventilation: involves contraction and relaxation of respiratory muscles to move air in and out of the lungs.

  • Pressure Gradients drive gas exchange.

  • Respiratory Muscles: include the diaphragm and intercostal muscles.

  • Static Mechanics: relate to forces opposing lung expansion, such as recoil.

  • Dynamic Forces (inspiration): overcome elasticity, friction, and inertia of air and tissue.

  • Alveolar Ventilation: exchange and removal of Oâ‚‚ and COâ‚‚ in the lungs.

  • Gas partial pressures drive gas movement in the lungs.

  • Hypoxia: Low blood oxygen: -Hypoxic hypoxia: low blood oxygen levels. -Anemic hypoxia: reduced oxygen-carrying capacity of blood (e.g., anemia). -Ischemic hypoxia: reduced blood flow. -Histotoxic hypoxia: inability of tissue cells to use oxygen.

  • Bohr Effect: How pH and COâ‚‚ affect oxygen binding to hemoglobin. A right shift results in an increased ability to release oxygen in the tissues-more COâ‚‚(more acidic).

  • Haldane Effect: Deoxygenated blood can carry more COâ‚‚ than oxygenated blood.

  • Chemical Control of respiration includes central and peripheral chemoreceptors that detect COâ‚‚, Oâ‚‚, and H+.

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