Protist, Fungi, and Plant Kingdoms

• The practical exam covers the Protist, Fungi, and Plant Kingdoms (Weeks 1-5)

Survey of Protists

• Protists are eukaryotic organisms with a membrane-bound nucleus
• They are generally unicellular, free-living, motile, aquatic, and microscopic, with asexual reproduction being common, but there are exceptions
• Most protists are unicellular, but some are multicellular, like kelp
• Protists' cells have a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles
• They can be autotrophic or heterotrophic
• Parasitism occurs in protists
• Protists move via cilia, flagella, and pseudopodia
• They reproduce asexually
• Protists are the foundation of the food chain
• Some produce oxygen and can be used for biofuel
• Protists serve as a primary food source for many animals
• Phytoplankton is a food source for whales
• Seaweed is an alga, similar to a plant-like protist

Protist Supergroups

• Archaeplastida: Phylum Chlorophyta, Specimen Volvox, Colonial Green Algae
• Archaeplastida: phylum Charophyta, Specimen Spirogyra, the closest living phylum to land plants
• Chromalveolata: phylum dinoflagellates, specimen Peridinium, causes Red Tides
• Chromalveolata: phylum Ciliophora, specimen Paramecium, ciliated
• Chromalveolata: phylum Apicomplexa, specimen Plasmodium, causes malaria in humans
• Chromalveolata: phylum Stramenopile, specimen Diatoms, cell walls are made of silica that persist
• Excavata: Trypanosoma causes African Sleeping Sickness
• Rhizaria: foraminiferans have a calcium carbonate test
• Amoebozoa: Amoeba proteus uses pseudopodia for locomotion

Survey of Kingdom Fungi

• Fungi are important as food, medicine, decomposers, and in agriculture
• Phylum Zygomycota: Specimen Rhizopus stolonifer (bread mold), mostly saprobes
• Thallus is a mass of haploid hyphae
• Asexual reproduction occurs in favorable conditions via sporangiospores
• Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of + and - hyphae (plasmogamy), forming a zygosporangium
• Followed by karyogamy, the fusion of nuclei
• Phylum Ascomycota (Sac Fungi): Specimens include Aspergillus, Peziza, Penicillium
• Asexual reproduction occurs via conidia, haploid spores formed on conidiophore hyphae
• Sexual reproduction uses specialized hyphae, including male antheridium and female archegonium
• Fusion forms an ascus with two nuclei, followed by karyogamy
• The diploid ascus undergoes meiosis to form 4 haploid nuclei, followed by mitosis, creating 8 ascospores (1n)
• Phylum Basidiomycota (Club Fungi): Specimen Coprinus
• Dikaryotic mycelium (fusion of mycelia from opposite mating types +/-) forms the basidiocarp (mushroom)
• Basidia are located on the gills under the pileus (cap)
• Dikaryotic basidium undergoes karyogamy, then meiosis and cell division, forming 4 basidiospores
• Lichens represent a symbiotic relationship between fungi and algae

Seedless Plants

• Bryophytes: gametophyte phase dominates, and the sporophyte is dependent on the gametophyte for photosynthesis
• They have rhizoids (root-like structures)
• Male sex organs are antheridia, which produce flagellated sperm
• Female sex organs are archegonia, which produce eggs
• Fertilization requires water for the sperm to swim to the egg
• The fertilized egg (zygote) develops into the sporophyte
• Liverworts: an example is Marchantia with lobed, flat leaves and gemmae cups for asexual reproduction
• Mosses: an example is Mnium (Fruiting moss)
• Seedless Vascular Plants have xylem and phloem
• Phylum Lycopodiophyta: Lycopodium (Club Moss) and Selaginella (spike moss)
• Reproductive organ is the strobilus, which houses both male and female reproductive organs
• Microsporangia produces the male gametophyte, and megasporangia produces the female gametophyte
• Phylum Monilophyta: an example is Horsetails (Equisetum)
• Ferns are homosporous, with sori on the underside of the frond

Gymnosperms

• Adaptations to land include reduced gametophytes, pine needles, and fertilization adaptations
• They have a greatly reduced gametophyte phase
• They are heterosporous, and have male vs female cones
• Male cones produce haploid microspores (male gametophyte)
• Female cones produce haploid megaspores (female gametophyte)
• Phylum Coniferophyta: staminate (male) cones produce pollen, cones are small and short lived
• Pollination occurs more than a year prior to maturation of the female gametophyte
• The pollen grain germinates and the pollen tube grows slowly into the archegonium
• Air sacs aid in wind dispersal of pollen
• Ovulate (female) cones are larger woody cones that persist for multiple years
• Seeds have tissue surrounding the megagametophyte, called the nucellus, which is nutritive tissue and integuments form the seed coat; seeds able to remain dormant for extended periods
• Other Phyla: Cycadophyta (cycads), Ginkgophyta (separate male and female plants), Gnetophyta (Ex. ephedra - medicinal decongestant)

Angiosperms

• Key aspects of angiosperms include knowing the parts of the flower and their functions
• Understand double fertilization and components of a seed
• Adaptations that help angiosperms like pollination and seed dispersal
• Phylum Anthophyta: know the flower and vascular tissue arrangement in monocots (ex. rice, wheat, alstroemeria) vs eudicots (ex. mums).