Protists, Fungi, and Symbiosis

Biodiversity and Micro-organisms

• Biodiversity is the variety of life on Earth.
• Micro-organisms can be seen with microscopes.
• Micro-organisms can be unicellular (one cell), multicellular (many cells), harmful and cause disease (pathogen), or be useful to environments and humans.
• Examples of useful micro-organisms are yeast and E. coli.
• Taxonomists organize living organisms into 5 kingdoms.

Tree of Life Kingdoms and Complexity

• The five kingdoms of living organisms are Monera, Protists, Plants, Animals, and Fungi.
• Complexity generally increases from Monera to Plants, Animals, and Fungi.
• Monera are prokaryotic and unicellular, absorbing or photosynthesizing asexually, and being motile or nonmotile.
• Protists can be eukaryotic, unicellular, or multicellular, absorbing, ingesting, or photosynthesizing sexually and asexually.
• Plants are eukaryotic, multicellular, photosynthesize, nonmotile, and reproduce sexually.
• Animals are eukaryotic, multicellular, ingest their food, are motile, and reproduce sexually.
• Fungi are eukaryotic, multicellular, absorb nutrients, are nonmotile, and reproduce sexually.

Viruses: Characteristics

• Viruses don't fall into any kingdom.
• Viruses have non-living and living characteristics.
• Viruses are microscopic and have many shapes.
• Viruses are acellular, lacking cytoplasm, membrane-bound organelles, and chlorophyll.
• Viruses cannot respire, feed, photosynthesize, or excrete.
• Viruses are internal obligate parasites that complete their life cycle inside a host.
• If viruses are unsuccessful, they may become dormant.
• Bacteriophages infect bacteria.
• Bacteriophages mean "phage = to eat".
• Diseases caused by viruses in humans are HIV/AIDS, Poliomyelitis, Chickenpox, Herpes, and Influenza.

Viruses: Structural Components

• The viral core contains the nucleocapsid/protein coat that surrounds the viral genome.
• Viral nucleic acids can be either DNA or RNA, but never both.
• The envelope is a membrane surrounding some viruses, made from the host cell.
• Envelope proteins/spike proteins are used for viral assembly and cell entry.

Viruses: Enveloped vs Non-Enveloped and Infection Process

• Enveloped viruses are enclosed within a lipid membrane and are sensitive to heat.
• Non-enveloped viruses lack a bilayer lipid membrane and are heat-resistant.
• The viral infection process involves: attachment, penetration, biosynthesis, maturation, and lysis.
• In the viral reverse transcriptase process, viral reverse transcriptase produces rcDNA from RNA, budding, and release
• Transcription and translation synthesis occurs in the ER (Endoplasmic Reticulum).

Bacteria: General Characteristics

• Bacteria are in the Kingdom Monera and found everywhere.
• Some bacteria are pathogenic, others are useful.
• Bacteria are prokaryotic, lacking a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.
• Bacteria are unicellular and larger than viruses, seen with a light microscope.
• Bacteria vary in shape, including coccus (round), bacillus (rod-shaped), spirillum (spiral-shaped), and vibrio (comma-shaped).
• Bacteria can obtain food through autotrophic processes like photosynthesis (using sunlight) and chemosynthesis (using chemical energy).
• Bacteria can also use heterotrophic processes by obtaining food from other organisms

Bacteria: Heterotrophic Processes

• Parasitic relationships involve obtaining food from a host, harming the host; an example is tuberculosis in humans.
• Mutualistic relationships involve both organisms benefiting from the relationship; an example is root nodule bacteria and plants.
• Saprotrophic bacteria decompose dead organic matter; examples include Micrococcus, E. coli, and Lactobacillus.

Bacteria: Reproduction

• Bacteria reproduce asexually by multiplying quickly under favorable conditions through binary fission (vertical gene transfer).
• Bacteria can share DNA with other bacteria through horizontal gene transfer.
• If conditions are unfavorable (low food, high heat, low moisture), bacteria form endospores which germinate when conditions improve.

Bacteria: Structural Components

• Cell wall provides protection and shape and is made of polysaccharides (long sugar molecules).
• Slime capsule provides adhesion and prevents desiccation.
• Cell membrane surrounds the cytoplasm but lacks membrane-bound organelles.
• Cytoplasm is the liquid that holds the nucleoid, plasmid, endospore, and ribosomes.
• Nucleoid is DNA in an irregular loop with no nuclear membrane.
• Plasmid consists of small, circular DNA strands.
• Endospore is a tough, protective, non-reproductive structure with DNA and cytoplasm, lying dormant during unfavorable conditions.
• Ribosomes are used for protein synthesis.
• Flagellum are whip-like structures with protruding filaments used for movement in liquids.
• Pili are used for adhesion to bacteria, host cells, or surfaces, motility, and horizontal gene transfer.

Comparing Horizontal and Vertical Gene Transfer

• Endospore formation is the cycle of spore coats, cortex, core of spore etc

Protista: General Characteristics

• The Kingdom Protista is a group of eukaryotes that don't fit into other kingdoms.
• Protists can be unicellular or multicellular and are usually microscopic, but can be meters long like seaweed.
• Protists have no tissue differentiation.
• Protists are mainly found in water (aquatic).
• Protists can be autotrophic or heterotrophic.
• Protists vary in motility such as sessile (seaweed), free-floating (algae), flagella (euglena), and pseudopodia – false feet (amoeba).
• Protists reproduce sexually and asexually.

Protista Groups and Categories

• The five groups within Protista include: Heterotrophs with no permanent locomotor apparatus, Photosynthetic protists, Heterotrophs with flagella, Non-motile spore formers, and Heterotrophs with restricted motility.
• grouped into Plant-like, Animal-like and Fungi-like categories for ease

Protista: Plant-Like (Algae), Animal-Like (Protozoa), and Fungi-Like (Slime Molds)

• Plant-like protists (algae) are mostly unicellular, but when multicellular are seaweed and Aquatic
• Plant-like protists (algae) contain chlorophyll which means they are autotrophic, and are free floating or sessile.
• Examples of plant-like protists are green/red/brown algae, diatoms, phytoplankton, and euglena.
• Animal-like protists (protozoa) are mainly heterotrophic and free-living, unicellular, have and are aquatic
• Some animal-like protists (protozoa) are parasitic, causing diseases like malaria.
• Examples of animal-like protists are Amoeba, paramecium, euglena, radiolarians, and zooplankton.
• Fungi-like protists (slime molds) are heterotrophic, have cell walls, reproduce using spores and can be motile. Examples of fungi-like such as water molds, downy mildews, and dog vomit slime mold.

Amoeba and Euglena examples of Protists

• Amoeba's have a nucleolus, nucleus, endoplam, ectoplasm, plasma membrane and food vacuoles
• Euglena has pellicle, nucleolus, chloroplast, flagellum, eyespot and contractile vacuole

Fungi: General Characteristics

• The Kingdom Fungi includes molds, yeasts, mildews, rusts, toadstools, and mushrooms.
• Fungi have cell walls made of chitin are eukaryotic and have a nuclear membrane.
• Some fungi are unicellular, like yeasts while some fungi are multicellular, like mushrooms.
• Fungi are heterotrophic and can live off dead organic matter (saprotrophic) or live off living hosts (parasitic).
• Fungi reproduce sexually or asexually through budding (in unicellular fungi) and spores (mainly multicellular fungi).

Fungi: Structural Components

• Multicellular fungi are made up of hyphae, mycelium and have different types of hyphae
• Hyphae create the network of multi-celled and multi-nucleated cells.
• Mycelium is the mass of hyphae found in soil or organic substrates, responsible for nutrient absorption.
• Rhizoids are threadlike structures that anchor fungi to a surface and aid in absorption.
• Stolon grows horizontally across a substrate's surface, spreading the colony.
• Sporangiophores are upright structures that end in sporangia, also carry and create spores.
• Sporangium are spore-producing structures found at the tips of sporangiophores to protect spores until ready for dispersal.
• Columella are column-like structures in a sporangium, supporting the spore-bearing tissue.

Fungi: Structure of Rhizopus

• A columella separates the sporangium from the sporangiophore.
• The mycelium is the entire body of hyphae..
• Sporangium produces mature spores, and the sporangiophore grows upright, supporting the sporangium.
• Stolon provides branched horizontal covering on the substrate.
• A rhizoid is a root-like structure anchoring it to a surface, and has the ability to digest enzymes to absorb the nutrients into the substrate.

Role of Micro-organisms: Ecological Balance

• Micro-organisms (bacteria, fungi & protists) are vital in nutrient recycling due to being saprophytes and being able to decompose dead organic material which helps to release nutrients into the environment.

Decomposers

• Bacteria and fungi are the main decomposers which put nutrients back to the environment.

Producers

• Plantlife, such as autotrophic organisms, use photosynthesis to make carbohydrates.
• Carbohydrates (glucose, starch and cellulose) are available to consumers, and are then linked to the food chain.
• Oxygen is released as a by-product of photosynthesis and is available for cellular respiration

Bacteria in Nitrogen Cycle

• Plants use nitrogen as nitrates with the help of bacteria which converts atmospheric nitrogen to nitrates.
• Some plants form symbiotic relations with nitrogen fixing bacteria.
• When anything dies, bacteria release nitrogen back to the atmosphere through a process called dentrification..

Symbiotic Relationships

• Symbiosis is a close, biological interaction between two or more different species.
• The 3 types of symbiotic relationship:
• Mutualism benefits both participants.
• Commensalism benefits one participant, and the other is unharmed or does not benefit in anyway.
• Parasitism benefits one participant, and the other is harmed in some way.

Mutualistic Relationships

• Lichens are algae that require a moist environment to thrive.
• Algae and cyanobacteria make up part of a fungi, which gives them protection, then the other provides glucose which gives them energy through the process of photosynthesis.
• Nitrogen-fixing bacteria and plants where they have a relationship where the nitrogen helps create proteins in legumes such as beans and peas.
• E Coil and bacteria live with humans where we provide the E coil with food in our intestines which helps digest and create vitamin K.

Mycorrhizal Fungi and Plants

• The Filamentous fungi called mycorrhiza can easily penetrate and become associates with the roots of highly complex plants.
• The mycorrhiza significantly increasing the area of the roots.
• Fungi get lots of sugars from the associated plants, creating a wide-range of networks for all plantilfe.

Micro-organism Diseases

• Pathogens which is viruses are that cause illnesses.
• Vectors and carriers that help agents cause infection, such as people.
• You have the Hosts where the illnesses replicate are multiplied.
• Epidemics are a sudden increase in a specific infection and Pandas is where an infection can happen in large amounts to a global scale.

Disease: Viruses - Rabies

• Rabies affects domestic and wild animals.
• Virus passed between animals by saliva, where humans get when they are bite by a animal.
• Infections lead to infections where people can form @ The mouth and can be aggressive. Infections can result in a 10-day death period.
• prevention has many things that involve getting animals and being able to get vaccinated yourself.
• Treatment involves using and sterilizing after infections.

Disease: Viruses- HIV/AIDS

• AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) occurs where people become transferred by semen and blood, and can occur from multiple activities to contract it.
• To avoid you can’t use Air, saliva, and interactions.
• People get symptoms 2-4wks after they become infected by AIDS with flu-like symptoms.
• The main prevention strategies: Practices of getting condoms, medicine for aids, and safe sterilize utensils and things you need.

Disease: Viruses -Influenza

• Influence is cause by the influence viruses and that is the normal "flu"
• Contact with an infected person and spread through that person's air with bird droppings. Symptoms include, body pain, muscle tensions, so prevention means to wear masks or washing your hands for preventing.
• There's no prevention as it can rapidly evolve from new strains.

Diseases from Bacteria and Blight

• Blight is when crops wilt form bacteria which affect crops like tomatoes, apples and grapes.
• Symptoms include, dried-up stock and wilting, where they all have to be burnt to prevent spread.
• prevention means using sterilize tools and using the "dry" plants

Disease: Bacteria- Cholera

• A unsafe drinking water with little sanitization.
• Cause is Vibrio Cholerae, symptoms are diarrhea.
• People can be asymptomatic, so clean drinking water and sanitation is a way to prevent.
• If infected means they are going to have to rehydrate where water is going to stay in for sterilization.

Disease: Bacteria - Tuberculosis

• Disease is caused by bacteria it affects the lungs and can affect spinal tissues.
• Disease is caused by infected people who sneeze or infect people with weak immune systems.
• Prevention from identification is through checking X-rays and tissues
• Treatment can cause death.
• Long Term drugs for patients also known as Dots so there is no drug resistance.

Disease: Bacteria - Anthrax

• Affects animals like goats and causes infection with the bacterium Bacillus which means it’s entered the blood stream.
• It has spore that lead to issues like breathing and tissue.
• It occurs though the form of infected animals where you should burry or contain the infected and cremation bodies or washing with heat and disinfectant.

Disease: Protists - Malaria

• Malaria has life-threatening parasite found from sub topical world and spread.
• Can happen within a window to 7-30 days after being infected where you get muscle weakness and high temperature.
• Though they're preventive measures were you must control most people and sterilize areas to make sure infection doesn't spread and control.
• There is financial issues that can be caused by money and there is some cases where infection can be fatal.

Diseases through Fungi and Rust

• Rust affect groups which can cause raised areas on land and will end up killing crops and other plants.
• Prevention means can all range from adding plants and putting them in heat
• Fungi are caused from certain parts where you can get other diseases on different regions.
• The yeast infection can end up causing different issues which will lead to further infections.

Athlete's Foot etc

• Fungi cause multiple conditions
• Anti-fungal cream to clean to clean, caused by wet socks and poor conditions.
• You can get athlete's foot at pools where to avoid you must keep it clean avoid sharing and avoid moisture.

Human Immunity

• In human biology one thing that always comes up is our biology against infections were it falls into 2 categories which Active and Passives.
• You have to be activated into the immune system, from different types of actions and can include long term or short term. - You have physical barriers with your skin, in your digestion areas etc. Your body tries hard to protect the body and provide immediate response.

Plants v Animal defense system

• Plants uses chemicals from there cells vs the defense process which active in nature
• The immune system helps help pathogens and is activated. You can active defense genes though using immune compounds.
• There’s different systems that help with defense such as Hypersensitive Response (HR).

Types of Immunity

• The two types are adaptive and innate immunity
• Adaptive has natural (passive, active infections) and artificial immunity
• Innate has chemical or physical Immunity

Human Defense of the Body

There's multiple ways humans defend against each organisms.

1. Physical barriers the skin is the main barrier to block pathogens, digestive tracks. Chemical Barriers occur though enzymes that are all in the body natural and ready.

Types of Immune defense

• There’s 2 major types of cells Lymphocytes and Phagocytes.
• Lymphocytes cells are stored in the blood and the 2 main are t and be cells

B-lymphocytes and T-lymphocytes

• B cells create lots of protection through the body and provide a immunity of the bodies fluids. They also are ready and can release to help against different antigens.
• T-lymphocytes release cytokines such as the helper or the killer cells. Also come with cytotoxic T-cells (CD8).

Phagocytes:

• This has dendritic cells, monocytes and Macrophages
• Through identify the bacteria and engulf the from using enzymes.

Types of Immunity

• Vaccine a injection or immunization is the process of giving a vaccine either by injection or orally to prevent disease.
• Body makes antigens. Active vs Passives all ready and can be activated, or active means the body is making it.
• Antibiotics means the fight against bacteria. Antibiotics means the fight against bacteria

Fighting vs Infections

• Antibiotics means the fight against bacteria. Antibiotics means the fight against bacteria antibiotics target protein synthesis in membranes.
• The drug known as a cell helps the prevent creation from proteins and help resist. It was created by Dr.Fleming in 1929. First comes a long weak and can be killed, then you use the strong bacteria. Biotech
• Biotech is the use of organism to create substances to use for human activity like food and different types of drugs.

Biotechnology: Production of Medicines (Antibiotics and Insulin) and Foods

• Antibiotics are made from a fungi called Pemicillium. Mold is put into a 25C VAT with amino and sugar, before being removed after 5 days.
• Insulin is produced when our body is not functioning correctly when sugar and proteins are not regulated. Production helps make bacteria and recombinant DNA technology.

Traditional biotechnology

• Many different parts to technology including how it helps create alcohol, bacteria that use enzymes, and lack oxygen to transform into other things humans produce.

Explore protist motility, algae characteristics, and protozoa. Learn about fungi, cell walls, nutrient uptake, and sporangiophores. Examine the roles of saprophytes, decomposers, nitrogen use in plants, photosynthesis, and symbiotic relationships like lichen.