Problem Definition and Agenda Setting

The process of identifying and framing a problem to be addressed by government policy. Includes stages like problem identification, description, cause identification, and assigning government responsibility.

The theory suggesting that developed countries, despite their differences, tend to face similar problems due to shared economic and social structures.

A model explaining how different groups influence government policy by leveraging their resources, like wealth or political influence.

The process by which issues gain attention and are placed on the political agenda for consideration. This can be influenced by various factors like media pressure, public opinion, and political interests.

The theory suggesting that governments are likely to announce unpopular policies after elections to avoid damaging their electoral prospects.

A social insurance system designed to provide pensions to workers upon retirement, disability, or death, with retirement benefits tied to earnings.

A universal social insurance system providing pensions to all citizens regardless of income or employment history, financed through taxation.

A pension scheme where benefits are determined by a formula based on years of contributions and average earnings.

A pension scheme where contributions are predetermined, and benefits depend on the future value of these investments.

The financial challenge of needing to pay current pensioners while simultaneously allowing future pensioners to build their retirement funds.

The issue of pension systems being strained due to increasing life expectancy and declining birth rates, leading to fewer workers supporting more retirees.

Strategies used by governments to hide or spread out the impact of pension cuts, making them less obvious to voters.

A strategy for blame avoidance involving obscuring pension cuts through complex formulas, tax changes, or delayed implementation.

A strategy for blame avoidance where responsibility for unpopular pension reforms is shared among multiple political parties or agencies.

A strategy for blame avoidance where governments seek support from independent experts or interest groups (e.g., unions, pensioners' organizations) to legitimize pension reforms.

All societal problems that demand government attention.

The set of problems that are up for serious consideration by decision-makers.

Actors outside the government initiate an issue and promote it in the public domain.

Institutions or leaders move an issue from the systematic agenda to the institutional agenda.

Insiders, like government departments, initiate issues with limited public participation.

Public interest in an issue rises and then fades over time.

Power distribution among contestants is the key factor in agenda setting.

Institutions define the agenda and the policy process.

Policy stability with occasional fundamental shifts.

Chance events play a significant role in agenda setting.

Policy-making happens within a network of power relations, ideas, institutions and societal context.

The process of drafting and adopting a policy.

Institutional points that can block a decision during policy-making.

Individual or collective actors whose agreement is necessary to change the status quo.

Policies that focus on the preferences, beliefs, and actions of individuals and groups involved in policy-making.

Policies that analyze how institutional structures and processes impact policy change.

Policies that highlight the role of external factors and events in policy change.

The role of the welfare state where the focus is on providing equal opportunities and insurance against life course risks, but not on promoting equality.

The role of the welfare state where the focus is on redistribution of wealth and achieving greater equality.

The state funding social programs like pensions, healthcare, and family benefits.

Social expenditure after deducting taxes and contributions.

The system where a country's social programs are closely tied to labor unions and employers.

A type of welfare state that emphasizes economic performance.

A type of welfare state that emphasizes reducing inequality and poverty.

A process where welfare states face pressures to reduce their spending.

The movement of capital and businesses to countries with lower taxes and production costs.

Policy measures aimed at supporting families with children.

A model of family policy that prioritizes men as the breadwinners, with women receiving benefits through their husband's position.

A model of family policy that emphasizes gender equality and encourages women's participation in the workforce.

Christian Democratic parties were more inclined to offer generous benefits to families to encourage women to care for children.

Systems with multiple veto points, like a multi-party system, can make expanding social services and funding difficult.

Economies where businesses work together and coordinate often have higher spending on social policies.

A shift towards a service-based economy, with fewer industrial jobs, has led to more low-wage, insecure jobs and increased female employment.

The traditional model of a male breadwinner and female carer is no longer the norm due to rising female employment and changing family structures.

Factors like later marriage, cohabitation, and divorce have caused a decline in traditional marriage.

Lower fertility rates mean fewer people contributing to pension and healthcare, placing strain on government budgets.

Fertility rates are below the replacement rate in all OECD countries, but vary significantly between nations. Higher government benefits do not necessarily correlate with higher birth rates.

Female employment rates vary widely across countries. High unemployment rates don't always capture the reality of part-time work, which is increasing globally.

Maternal employment is lower in societies where the male breadwinner model is dominant. Countries with more gender equality tend to have higher rates of working mothers.

Spending on childcare and early education is linked to higher rates of maternal employment, while spending on parental leave has less clear impact and can even reinforce gender norms.

Child poverty levels vary significantly between countries. Higher rates of maternal employment are associated with lower child poverty levels.

Parental leave primarily benefits low to middle-income earners, particularly those with married men in stable employment. It often does not effectively reach single-parent households.

Parental leave policies are criticized for potentially reinforcing traditional gender roles, as women often take longer leaves, impacting their careers and earnings in the long run.

Scandinavian countries are often considered leaders in family policy, with a focus on supporting women in the workforce and providing affordable childcare.