Positive Psychology: Definitions & Understanding

Week 1 - Introductions & Defining Positive Psychology

• Positive Psychology: Focuses on positive experiences, dispositions, contexts, and processes that facilitate well-being, achievement, and harmony in individuals and groups

Ways of Understanding ‘Positive’

• Good Intentions: Psychologists aim to enhance lives through research/applications, which is not unique to positive psychology
• Ideological Perspective: Assuming people are naturally good or growth-oriented; this can be problematic from a scientific perspective.
• Appreciative Stance: Psychologists objectively gather and examine information from a positive view; similar to ideology, but more research-focused.
• Set of Topics: Defining positive in positive psychology through topics means focusing on positive things, which can be too broad.

Assessing Positivity

• Choice: Positivity/desirability can be inferred from the choice.
• Values: Signify what is good within broader systems like laws, religion, and culture, determining priorities
• Subjective Experiences: Happiness is central to positive psychology, existing in the mind of the experiencer

Definitions in Psychology

• Psychology: deals with people's thoughts, feelings, social interactions, habits, dispositions, responses to environments, and their development over time.
• Flow: occurs when task challenges optimally match an individual's skills.
• Resilience: Maintaining well-being amid difficult circumstances/challenges.

Positive Psychology as a Branch of Science

• Scientific Method: Objectively establishes facts through testing/experimentation, distinguishing it from advice and self-help.

Differentiating Positive Psychology

• Humanistic Psychology: Focuses on human dignity, personal choice, and growth, using qualitative methods (less about numbers) over quantitative methods.

Week 2 - Psychological Science

• Correlational Approach: A research method to determine whether, and how strongly, two things are linked
• Experimental Approach: Involves manipulating a variable and observing the manipulation's effect on a dependent variable.
• Random Assignment: Provides an equal chance for participants to be placed in either group.

Definitions

• Correlational coefficient: Represented as r, describes the strength/direction of association between two variables, ranging from -1.0 to +1.0, with 0 indicating no association.
• Causality: Examines how things influence one another, i.e., how causes lead to effects.
• Longitudinal Studies: Conducted across at least two time points (days), often long-term studies over months/years.
• Third Variable Problem: A third variable is a common cause of the two correlated variables, meaning they may not cause one another.
• Independent Variable: The thing being manipulated
• Dependent Variable: The outcome or thing that is (possibly) affected by the manipulation
• Confounds: Unintentionally manipulated variables beyond the social independent variable in experimental studies.

Difference Between Correlational and Experimental Approaches

• Correlational Approach: only observes two variables
• Experimental Approach: manipulates one variable

Limitations to the Correlational Approach

• Directionality Problem: Correlations do not imply causation
• Longitudinal Studies sometimes help
• Third Variable Problem: Something else may be a cause of both

Limitations to the Experimental Approach

• Artificiality: Experimental studies construct situations so that key features can be controlled/manipulated.
• This makes more powerful conclusions about causality and studying less naturalistic behaviors, thoughts, and feelings
• Confounds: The third variable is 'confounded' with what the experiment intended to manipulate

Chapter 10 - Credibility Revolution

• The Credibility Revolution: A recent movement that questions how much we can trust past research in psychology and aims to increase the confidence of findings
• ESP Psychology Journal: Bem's 9 studies suggested humans might have ESP, specifically predicting the future
• Publication Despite Skepticism: Published, reflecting methodological soundness despite implausibility.
• Failed Reciprocation: Replication attempts indicated false positives
• Impact on Research: Prompted reflection, increased replication studies, and fueled the credibility revolution in psychology
• The Reproductability Project: 100 studies from 2008 were selected for replication, each paired with a new researcher

Process

• Researchers conducted original authors and publicly recorded detailed plans before data collection and analysis

Goal

• Aimed to estimate the predictability rate in psychology

Results

• About ⅓-½ of studies were replicated, with effect sizes about half of the originals
• Raises questions about their reliability
• Cognitive psychology appeared to be more replicable than social psychology

Ways Forward (Solutions:)

• Cautious Evaluation: Prioritizing strong methods, openness, and testing moderators
• Open Science: Make data and plans publicly available, pre-register studies, and use registered reports
• Improved Methods: Use larger samples, multi-site collaborations, and valid measures
• Support Replications: Reward replication efforts with funding, prizes, and recognition

Definitions

• Replication: A hallmark of science demonstrated when a study is repeated
• Replication studies will usually produce the same results when findings are true
• Direct/Exact Replication: A type of study that attempts to repeat the procedures of another original study as closely as possible
• Conceptual Replication: A type of study that retests the basic idea of another original study but intentionally changes the procedures in some way
• False Positive: conclusion that a finding/difference is true when it is false
• Pre-registration: Involves recording a study's procedure/planned analyses online before data are collected; it helps reduce flexibility
• This makes it more difficult to hide a study with unsupportive results

Explanations

• Publication Bias: A phenomenon where studies' results influence whether or not they are communicated; favoring studies that indicate effective interventions or hypothesis-confirming results
• P-hacking: A problematic practice where researchers report only the choices/analyses that lead to p < .05 (statistical significance)
• This ignores other analyses that are less supportive of hypotheses.
• Depending on p: Unreported Variables
• Solutions for problems can include: Adding statistical controls, Adding participants, Dropping experimental conditions
• Doing these can create false positives 60% of the time and small samples = false positive more likely

Key Takeaways from the Reproductability Project

• Need for Reform: improvements in research practices are necessary to enhance predictability
• Scientific Approach: Transparency and rigorous methods are promoted in research

Week 3 - Positive Emotions

• Positivity Offset: Approaching the world with optimism and positive evaluation
• "Bad is stronger": Threats quickly grab our attention
• Unpleasant feelings motivate change

Basic Emotions

• A specific type of feeling with distinct physical reactions, expressions, and experiences
• It is also separate from other emotional states such as moods.

The intersection of a few components include

• Appraisals: Interpreting circumstances

Cognitive Component

• Core themes distinguish emotions and explain individual differences in experiences

Physiological Changes: In the body and brain

• Physical component
• Peripheral Autonomic Nervous System
• This is often assessed with polygraph, electrodermal activity, heart rate, breathing rate
• James-Lange Theory: Relates emotions to bodily arousal. EEG & Hemispheric Asymmetry:
• Left correlates to approach, right correlates to avoidance
• fMRI & PET correlates: Assesses blood flow to infer activity

Expressions

• In the face, posture, tone of voice, and touch
• Behavioural component
• Facial Action Coding System (FACS): Facial analysis to objectively code emotion expressions
• Electromyography (EMG): Measures facial muscle activity, recording the electricity generated by muscles just under the skin

Subjective Experience

• Our personal, first-person phenomenological feeling
• Internal component: (measured with self-reports) phenomenological experience is key
• Time & Subjective Emotional Experiences: Experiencing self (in the moment) vs. Remembering self (completes self-reports)
• Duration neglect: Memories are shaped more by intense/recent moments, rather than overall length

Action Tendencies

• Motivation to do some things rather than others
• Motivational component: The motivation to do...
• Makes the body ready for action
• E.g. disgust prompts spitting out and avoidance
• Motivates the Broaden & Build Theory

Two Broad Approaches

Basic Emotions View(s)

• Distinct things : Clear and strict criteria
• Omits some affect

Dimensional View(s)

• About organizing affect (feelings) based on similarity
• Few clear definitions

Broaden & Build Theory

• Positive emotions temporarily expand our thinking and attention to build skills/resources
• Positive emotions broaden focus and this builds resources for the future
• Early examples include
• Joy (play, activity)
• Interest (exploration, new information)
• Contentment (savoring, applying to the future)
• Love (focuses on others)
• Building occurs over time, often correlational.

Definitions

Positivity Offset

• People's tendency to show positive affect, optimism, and evaluation

Emotions

• Feeling states that cause physiological, cognitive, and behavioral changes

Mood

• Feelings/states lacking a clear subject

Emotion Traits

• Stable individual differences in emotional experiments

Affect

• Either pleasant or unpleasant but does not cover all of the whole emotion

Natural Kinds

• The concept of 'emotions' is determined people's understanding of them
• Ekman's Research: 6 emotions with only joy as positive and historical focus on imbalance

Emotions vs Mood

• Emotions during an emotion, bodily and mental activity operate in concert, more concretely, on a specific thing
• Fleeting and quick, lasting only seconds
• Mood - less intense lasting hours versus minutes

Basic Emotions View(s)

• Discrete meeting criteria such as appraisals, physiology, and experience
• Sadness, fear, disgust, anger, surprise, and joy
• Specific Causes/ Brief/Automatic Consequences

Dimensional View(s)

• More subtle variations and fuzzy boundaries
• Arranging based on similarities/differences, not natural kinds
• The Affect Circumplex is related to dimensional view: Wanting vs. Liking: wanting = dopamine and liking = opioids/cannabinoids
• Duchenne smiles: Contraction of cheek and eye muscles for genuineness
• Limitation to B&B Theory: Approach Motivation
• Positive emotions can channel people toward certain thoughts, not broadening experiences

Week 4 - Happiness Basics

Subjective Well-Being

• Hedonic approach with satisfaction, pleasant emotions, and few unpleasant emotions
• Life satisfaction: Individual evaluation of circumstances
• Eudaimonia: sense of purpose, meaning, authenticity, and growth

Definitions

• Eudaimonia: A good or psychologically well-being life
• Hedonia: Focusing on pleasant feelings only
• Adaptation: The tendency to adjust to new circumstances to a baseline level after major life events
• Hedonic adaptation: Stable happiness despite major life events such as a treadmill that will not stabilize

Explanations

• Ryff's Psychological Well-Being measures 6 scales that have been defined by Aristotle.
• The Big Five-Factor assesses SWB, gender, age, intelligence, education, physical health, marriage, parenting, religion, and money

Week 5 - Happiness Across Nations & Project Guidance

• Correlation between money and happiness: Nations are stronger than within
• Life Satisfaction is strongly linked to wealth and Gallup polls track this. Materialism can affect this.
• Prosocial Spending: can improve happiness

Definitions

• Materialsim: Leads often to well-being because it is linked to wealth. This is often done from Gallup tracking polls and through spending and SWB.
• Context Dependent: Religion and Happiness will change as society stabilizes for those struggling
• Religiosity declines when basic needs are met and safety is obtained. But religious involvement support during challenging conditions and has shown the "Religion Paradox"

Definitions

• Religion Paradox: The idea that religion contributed to happiness in some contexts but is declining in others where well-being is already high
• Also is caused from coping mechanisms and social supports. However security also needs well-being.
• Material = secure with a well-being as a support

Week 6 - Positive Psychology Interventions & Goals

Key-Points

• Positive Psychology Interventions (PPIs) Activities foster improvements in well-being
• Mauss et al indicated how improvements could correlate with actual happiness.
• Interventions such as positive emotion and character influences such as the self-determination theory for success

Definitions

• Positive Psychology Interventions (PPIs): Activities to lasting improvements in well-being

Explanations

The pursuit may lower actual happiness.

• Goal-Setting Theory and SDT increases adherence with support by accountability
• SDT: the goals can improve performance or be negative so they are structured.

Explore positive psychology's focus on well-being and harmony, examining ways of understanding 'positive,' including intentions and appreciative stances. Learn how positivity is assessed through choices and values within cultural systems. Understand the core principles.