Polyarchy and Democratization Theory
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Polyarchy and Democratization Theory

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What is a primary characteristic of Competitive Authoritarianism?

  • Elections are held but lack fairness and freedom (correct)
  • Elected authorities possess real authority
  • Complete control of the legislature by a single party
  • Universal suffrage with no restrictions on voting

    • Which of the following is NOT a condition that breaks the rules of democracy in Competitive Authoritarianism?

  • Executives and legislature are chosen in free elections
  • All adults are allowed to vote
  • Political rights and liberties are granted to citizens (correct)
  • Elected authorities have limited powers

    • What factor can contribute to the emergence of Competitive Authoritarianism?

  • Robust civil society movements
  • The decay of authoritarianism (correct)
  • The complete democratization of a state
  • Increased influence of colonial powers

    • Which of the following arenas is NOT an area of contestation in Competitive Authoritarianism?

    <p>Military arena</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one reason for the difficulties in understanding democratization processes?

    <p>Empirical tests may be weak due to the uniqueness of revolutions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which characteristic is NOT associated with polyarchy?

    <p>Single party dominance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does increased public contestation and inclusiveness indicate in a political system?

    <p>Polyarchy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which historical sequence suggests that liberalization comes before inclusiveness?

    <p>England and Sweden</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What factor contributes to elites' concern over the loss of finances in a democratic context?

    <p>Capital mobility</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT one of the 8 guarantees of democracy?

    <p>Government control of media</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to Lipset's modernization theory, what is the relationship between modernization and democracy?

    <p>Modernization promotes democracy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does a competitive oligarchy imply regarding public contestation and inclusiveness?

    <p>High contestation, low inclusiveness</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What impact does an intense recession have on elites' fear of revolution?

    <p>Increases their fear of revolution</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does preference falsification refer to in the context of revolutions?

    <p>Publicly supporting while privately opposing a regime</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which theory suggests that the government cannot stop a revolution but elites might disrupt it?

    <p>Structuralist Theory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What problem is associated with predicting revolutions?

    <p>The unpredictability of timing and lack of observable cues</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can early defectors during a revolution lead to?

    <p>Snowball effects that catalyze further defections</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic of pluralistic ignorance in a population?

    <p>A dissonance between private beliefs and perceived majority views</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the J Curve by Davies suggest about revolutions?

    <p>Social unrest occurs when expectations exceed actual conditions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    According to the concepts presented, how can revolutions affect perceptions of regime stability?

    <p>Sudden revolutions reveal the underlying vulnerabilities of regimes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one implication of the existence of revolutionary bandwagons?

    <p>They can create a sudden mass shift in public sentiment.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does the rational choice theory evaluate revolutionary activities?

    <p>Through a lens of cost-benefit analysis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role do brokers play in party machines, especially in contexts of partial democracies?

    <p>They distribute goods to ensure political loyalty and measure defection</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What characterizes totalitarianism in governance?

    <p>An all-encompassing ideology with a focus on infallibility of the government</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which model of democracy emphasizes a concentration of executive power?

    <p>Westminster Model</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What kind of accountability is a characteristic of party machines according to Stokes?

    <p>Perverse accountability where parties monitor constituent voting</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the 'J Curve' in revolution theory explain?

    <p>The gap between people's expectations and reality</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of governance allows for military involvement while restricting political parties?

    <p>Bureaucratic Authoritarianism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does 'passive resistance' differ from active forms of protest?

    <p>It aims for immediate gains without confrontation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic sign of backsliding in a democracy, according to Levitsky?

    <p>Rejection of democratic rules and curtailment of civil liberties</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which model of democracy is characterized by coalition building and proportional representation?

    <p>Consensus Model</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes sultanistic regimes from other forms of governance?

    <p>Personal rule focused on the interests of the ruler</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Skocpol emphasize as a primary factor in social revolutions?

    <p>The inefficacy of the central administration or military</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What constitutes the military's role in bureaucratic authoritarian regimes?

    <p>An administrative body that limits political participation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which characteristic is typically not associated with a competitive authoritarian regime?

    <p>Complete absence of electoral competition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is suggested about landlords' vulnerabilities in revolutionary contexts?

    <p>Centralized sanctioning machines can expose their vulnerabilities.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of brokers in political party machines?

    <p>Monitoring community needs and securing votes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the context of revolutionary thresholds, what does the Green Grocer scenario illustrate?

    <p>The dilemma of individual actions against regime symbols</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Polyarchy

    • Dahl describes polyarchy as a system with multiple groups competing for power and broad participation.
    • Liberal freedoms, competitive politics, and broad participation are key elements of polyarchy.
    • Dahl contrasts polyarchy with hegemony, which is characterized by single-party dominance.
    • Polyarchy requires a system where individuals can formulate preferences, express them, and have them fairly considered.
    • Dahl outlines a four-dimensional model for analyzing democratization (public contestation and inclusiveness)
      • Hegemony: Low public contestation and low inclusiveness
      • Polyarchy: High public contestation and high inclusiveness
      • Inclusive Hegemony: Low public contestation and high inclusiveness
      • Competitive Oligarchy: High public contestation and low inclusiveness
    • Dahl identifies three historical sequences of democratization:
      • Liberalization precedes inclusiveness: This sequence is exemplified by England and Sweden: the transition is stable but is outdated for modern democracies.
      • Inclusiveness precedes liberalization: This sequence is characterized by countries like Weimar Germany.
      • Shortcut: Post-war Japan is an example of this sequence.
    • Dahl identifies eight essential guarantees for democracy:
      • Freedom to form and join organizations
      • Freedom of expression
      • Right to vote
      • Right to hold public office
      • Ability to compete for support and votes
      • Access to alternative information sources
      • Free and fair elections.
      • Institutions are dependent on citizens' expressions of preference.
    • Public contestation is linked to policy innovation.
    • Inclusiveness is linked to the specificity of policy implementation.

    Democratization

    • Carles Boix and Susan Stokes explore the transition from authoritarianism to democracy.
    • Lipset's modernization theory suggests that modernization leads to democracy.
    • Przeworski emphasizes that development prevents the deterioration of democracy.
    • There are significant differences between pre-1950 and post-1950 democratization.
    • Capital mobility, where elites can freely move their money, can be a barrier to democratization because it reduces their fear of losing their wealth.
    • Acemoglu and Robinson’s theory emphasizes the fear of revolution by elites as a driver of democratization.
    • Bueno de Mesquita et al. propose a theory based on the winning coalition, suggesting that smaller winning coalitions are more conducive to authoritarianism.
    • Gaziorowsky's neighbor effect suggests that neighboring countries' democratic transitions can influence democratization in a country.
    • The resource curse, where countries with abundant natural resources have less incentive to democratize, is another obstacle.
    • Issues with current approaches to understanding democratization:
      • Diverse pathways to democracy: Single-party regimes, military juntas, and personalistic regimes have different paths to transition.
      • The role of authoritarian regimes in shaping democratization needs further exploration.
      • External factors like the internet and colonialism can influence democratization.
      • Empirical testing of theories is difficult as revolutions are diverse and complex.

    Competitive Authoritarianism

    • Competitive authoritarianism is a political system characterized by incomplete democracies.
    • Levitsky identifies four violations of democratic rules in competitive authoritarianism:
      • Leaders and legislatures may not be elected in free and fair elections.
      • Not everyone has the right to vote.
      • Political rights and liberties are frequently violated.
      • Elected authorities may lack real power.
    • Levitsky outlines four arenas of contestation in these systems:
      • Electoral Arena: The leader's power is contested.
      • Legislative Arena: Checks and balances may be undermined.
      • Judicial Arena: Public disapproval of the government might be suppressed.
      • Media Arena: The flow of information and informed participation may be controlled.
    • Levitsky identifies three paths to competitive authoritarianism:
      • Decay of authoritarianism
      • Collapse of authoritarianism
      • Decay of democracy
    • Post-Cold War, many states have witnessed decay or collapse, particularly in the Middle East.
    • Totalitarianism has a comprehensive ideology, utilizes terror and propaganda, and controls both public and private life.
    • Authoritarianism lacks a comprehensive ideology, has limited independent institutions, promotes political apathy, and restricts opposition.
    • Bureaucratic-Authoritarianism emphasizes the military as a key governing institution.
    • Sultanistic regimes are characterized by highly personalized rule and the ruler's self-interest.
    • Neopatrimonialism features a dualistic governance system marked by patronage and clientelism, often leading to corruption.
    • Geddes typology classifies regimes into single-party, military, and personalistic types, suggesting that single-party regimes are most likely to transition to democracy.
    • Slovik typology highlights military involvement, restrictions on political parties, and manipulation of the legislature and executive.
    • Competitive authoritarianism versus façade regimes: - Competitive authoritarianism offers meaningful contestation, competition, participation, rights, and horizontal accountability. - Façade regimes lack these characteristics.
    • Brown Areas: In countries like China, the state's authority may be weak or absent in certain regions.

    Institutions

    • The Workhorse Model is a two-group model of democracy that focuses on the Median Voter Theory, which suggests that parties will cater to the preferences of the median voter to win elections.
    • Extensions of the workhorse model include the three-class model (rich, poor, middle class)
    • The Westminster Model (British Parliament) is characterized by:
      • Concentrated executive power in one party or a bare majority.
      • Cabinet dominance.
      • Two-party system.
      • Majoritarian/disproportional electoral system.
      • Interest group pluralism.
      • Centralized government.
      • Concentration of legislative power in a unicameral legislature.
      • Constitutional flexibility.
      • Absence of judicial review.
      • Executive-controlled central bank.
    • The Consensus Model
      • Multiparty coalitions are common in this model.
      • Proportional representation is used to ensure greater representation.
      • Bicameralism (two-chamber legislature) is favored.
      • Rigid constitutions and judicial review are key features.
    • Presidentialism
      • Both the president and legislature are elected separately, each with independent powers.
      • Horizontal accountability, where each branch checks the other, exists.
    • Parliamentarism
      • Coalition building is crucial, often involving multiple small parties.
      • Party discipline is emphasized.
      • The cabinet is responsible to the parliament and can be removed by a vote of no confidence.
    • Two-party systems:
      • Decisive governments often arise in this system.
      • Simplicity for voters is a benefit.
      • Polarization can become a significant challenge.
    • Multi-party systems:
      • Offer greater diversity of representation.
      • Coalition building is common, but instability can be a concern.

    Party Machines

    • Political parties that provide material benefits to supporters in exchange for their loyalty are known as party machines.
    • These machines aim to secure votes through a recurring, strategic process.
    • Brokers, as intermediaries between politicians and voters, play a crucial role:
      • Identify local needs.
      • Monitor communities.
      • Enforce loyalty by punishing those who threaten to withdraw support.
    • Controlled through hierarchies and information flow in smaller communities.
    • The Maisanta database is used to classify voters, track turnout, and target poor voters for mobilization.
    • Perverse accountability occurs when parties monitor their constituents' voting behavior.
    • Argentina's experience with ballot anonymity reduction highlights how brokers can use this to monitor voting patterns effectively.
    • Vote buying is facilitated by the ideological convergence between opposing candidates.
    • The effectiveness of vote monitoring is influenced by:
      • The organizational structure of the party machine.
      • The size of the community.
      • The level of technological anonymity available.

    Backsliding

    • Levitsky outlines four red flags identified by Juan Linz for authoritarian backsliding:
      • Rejection of democratic rules.
      • Denial of opponents' legitimacy.
      • Toleration of violence.
      • Curtailing opponents' civil liberties.
    • Hungary's experience with the rise of Viktor Orban is a case study of gradual authoritarianization.
    • Economic anxieties and White identity politics can contribute to the rise of authoritarianism.
    • The Economist Intelligence Unit's Democracy Index assesses democracy based on: - Electoral process. - Functioning of government. - Political participation. - Political culture. - Civil liberties.
    • Chile's 1973 military coup is a key example of how democracies can be overturned by authoritarian force.
    • Vulnerability to backsliding is heightened by:
      • Granting authoritarian individuals significant power.
      • Granting authoritarian individuals the capacity to push democratic boundaries.
    • Fateful alliances, where established political leaders embrace authoritarian figures, can significantly contribute to democratic backsliding.
    • Strategies to prevent backsliding:
      • Isolate and delegitimize authoritarian figures.
      • Avoid forming alliances with them.
      • Adopt a united front to resist their influence.
    • Examples of countries defending democracy include Belgium and Finland after World War I.

    Revolutions and Protests

    • Davies distinguishes between revolutions (new ruling coalition with broader support and structural changes) and rebellions (smaller-scale uprisings).
    • Tilly emphasizes the role of discontent, group organization, resource availability, and opportunity in the emergence of revolutions.
    • The moment of mobilization can be influenced by:
      • Deteriorating conditions (Marx)
      • Improving conditions (Toqueville)
      • The "J Curve" theory: When expectations exceed reality, this gap creates potential for revolutions.

    Social Revolutions

    • Skocpol contrasts with Davies' theory by suggesting that revolutions don't necessarily require a broader base for the new ruling coalition.
    • Skocpol identifies three aspects of social revolutions:
      • Incapacitation of central administration and the military.
      • Peasant rebellions.
      • Marginal elite political movements.
    • Three key accomplishments of social revolutions:
      • Nationalization and centralization of institutions.
      • Removal of the traditional landed upper class as oppressors.
      • Quas-political supervision of the peasantry and elimination of the landed upper class's economic power.
    • Social revolutions are facilitated by the majority of peasants.
    • Limited direct supervision and conflict promote revolutions based on peasant power.
    • Huntington defines revolution as rapid, fundamental, violent, and domestic change in the dominant society.
    • Lenin views revolution as a "festival of the oppressed."
    • Landlords are vulnerable when:
      • Sanctioning machines are centralized.
      • Agricultural work and social life are controlled by the peasantry.

    Passive Resistance

    • James Scott's concept of "weapons of the weak" explores how the powerless engage in indirect resistance:
      • Self-help strategies (avoid confrontation, maximize individual well-being)
      • Covert actions, lacking organization, aiming for immediate gains.
    • The more attached to the symbolic hegemony, the less likely individuals are to utilize weapons of weak.
    • Symbolic alignment can strengthen mystification and discourage resistance.
    • False consciousness is the idea that individuals may agree with the regime's ideology even when it goes against their interests.

    Revolutionary Threshold

    • Timur Kuran's "Green Grocer" example illustrates the idea of collective action:
      • Grocer removes a pro-worker sign, demonstrating a shift in public sentiment and the potential for a revolution.
    • Kuran critiques existing theories:
      • Structuralist theories: Elites can disrupt the government, but not necessarily maintain the status quo.
      • Relative deprivation theory (Davies): Doesn't fully account for the element of surprise.
      • Rational choice theory: Doesn't explain the unpredictable timing of revolutions.
    • Kuran introduces preference falsification, where individuals support the regime publicly but oppose it privately:
      • Creates an illusion of stability.
      • The internal and external payoffs associated with revolutions influence this phenomenon.
    • Early defectors and cascading events can trigger a revolutionary bandwagon.
    • Pluralistic ignorance: Individuals misinterpret the majority's views, believing their own views are not widely shared.
    • Predicting revolutions is extremely difficult:
      • Hindsight bias makes it hard to see early warning signs.
      • Revolutionary movements are unpredictable and often driven by complex factors.
    • Implications of sudden revolutions:
      • Regimes may be vulnerable to collapse more easily than they appear.
      • Support for revolutions can be fragile, even among sincere sympathizers.

    Review Session

    • General review should include:
      • 10 multiple-choice questions.
      • 10 short-answer questions (2 sentences each).
      • 4 essay questions (150-200 words each).
    • Essay topics can explore comparisons between different authors or different approaches to revolution.
    • Total points: 30 (5 for multiple choice, 10 for short answer, 15 for essay)

    Unit 2 Review

    • Tilly's "State making as organized crime" framework:
      • Stationary bandits conceptualize extraction as just enough, but in reality, they extract much more.
      • States sell protection (racketeering) to citizens through threats and coercion in exchange for taxes.
    • Sovereign states and competition:
      • Freeriding, where some benefit from others' contributions without participating.
      • Darwinian selection, where stronger states survive while weaker ones collapse.
      • Distinction between sovereign states, city-states, and the Hanseatic League.
    • Measurement capacity:
      • Standardization of weights, measures, etc., allows rulers to accurately track contributions from each member of society.
      • Determines how effectively a ruler can tax constituents.

    Unit 3 Review

    • Bueno de Mesquita's theory: Small winning coalitions are less conducive to democracy because they are easier to appease with material benefits and lack ideological diversity.
    • External factors are more influential on democratization than many scholars acknowledge.
    • Paths to polyarchy: Familiarity with the different sequences and their implications.
    • Brokers' role in the party machine:
      • Low-level bureaucrats associated with a party who distribute goods (food, healthcare) and monitor defection. - Often operate independent of party control and provide goods for political support. - Key figures in competitive authoritarianism. - Early 2000s protests against French supermarkets showed the impact of brokers.
    • The influence of a strongman trying to distribute resources.

    Unit 4 Review

    • Cycles of reform and repression: The example of Imperial Russia, where movements for reform and repression alternated before culminating in revolution.
    • Marginal elites: Organize revolutions and shape post-revolutionary outcomes.
    • Rational choice theory: Cost-benefit analysis applied to revolutionary movements, but not in great depth for review purposes.
    • Pluralistic ignorance is the consequence of preference falsification.
    • The impact of external factors on democratization:
      • The internet's role in facilitating communication and organization.
      • The legacy of colonialism and its effects on political institutions.
      • How globalization and global interconnectedness can influence revolutions.
    • The effects of economic globalization on democratization.
      • The rise of transnational businesses and their impact on national economies.
      • The potential for global capital to undermine domestic democratic institutions.
      • The effects of global financial crises on political stability.
    • The impact of cultural globalization on democratization.
      • The spread of democratic values and ideas through global media and cultural exchange.
      • The potential for cultural clashes and conflicts to destabilize democracies.
      • The influence of international organizations and their efforts to promote democracy.
    • The impact of the rise of China on the global landscape.
      • Its economic power and influence on developing countries.
      • Its potential for challenging the existing international order.
      • Its implications for the future of democracy.

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    Explore Robert Dahl's concept of polyarchy, focusing on the competition for political power and the essential elements of broad participation. This quiz delves into the contrasts between polyarchy and hegemony and examines Dahl's four-dimensional model for analyzing democratization. Test your understanding of historical sequences of democratization and the principles that underpin liberal political systems.

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