Political Science: Scope, Behaviorism, and Marxism

Meaning of Political Science

• Political Science traditionally starts and ends with the study of the state and government.
• Modern political science emphasizes being the study of power and authority.
• Political Science scope includes the study of the state, political system, government, power, human behavior, and political issues.

Objectives of studying Political Science

• Explaining Political Science through standard definitions.
• Distinguishing between Political Science and Politics.
• Describing the scope of Political Science related to the State, government functions, and relationship with citizens.
• Recognizing the importance of Justice for citizens and the State.

Definition of Political Science

• Political Science is a social science that deals with the foundations of the state and the principles of the government.
• J W Garner stated, "Politics begins and ends with the state."
• R G Gettel described Politics as the "study of the state in the past, present and future".
• Harold J Laski said that Politics concerns the life of men and women in relation to the organized state.
• It deals with activities and organizations devoted to seeking power and resolving conflicts within the state's legal framework.

Changing Meaning of Political Science

• The term "Politics" comes from the Greek word "polis," meaning city-state.
• Politics also involves power, as defined by Harold D. Lasswell and Abraham Kaplan: "the study of shaping and sharing of power".
• Politics deals with both the state and power, particularly legitimate power.
• Political Science studies the state and power systematically through observation and experiment.
• Political Science addresses both empirical facts ("what is") and normative issues ("what should be").
• Empirical statements are assessed for truth based on observation, while evaluative statements involve ethical or moral imperatives.
• Political Science evaluates institutions, and practices, focusing on improvement through empirical statements.

Growth of the Discipline of Political Science

• The systematic study of Politics began with the Greeks in the fourth century BC.
• Philosophers like Plato and Aristotle used it comprehensively.
• Aristotle considered Politics a "master science" including not only state institutions but also other social elements.
• The ancient Greek view about Political Science was mainly ethical and Romans considered the legal aspect of Politics as more important for their governance.
• During the Middle Ages, Political Science was a branch of the religious order of the Church, subordinate to the Church's authority.
• Political Science is the systematic study of state and power and with increased state complexity, it adopted a realistic, secular approach post-Industrial Revolution.
• In the 20th century, the 'behavioral approach' emphasized the 'science' aspect of Politics, modeling it after natural sciences with theory built inductively from empirical propositions.
• The behavioral approach shifted focus to functions of political institutions stressing political activity and behavior, replacing the study of ideas with facts and evidence.
• Politics may include individual actions like contesting elections or group efforts to influence government policy.
• Politics includes physical coercion by the government and the persuasive efforts to resolve conflicts through balanced policy decisions.
• Politics is viewed as a process where entities pursue conflicting goals and allocate resources authoritatively.
• The Marxist approach considers Politics as a study of conflicts between 'haves' and 'have-nots', advocating for a revolution to end private property.
• Alternatively, the liberal view sees Politics as conciliation and accommodation to achieve order and justice as a counter to the Marxist perspective.

Distinction between Political Science and Politics

• Political Science and Politics are often used interchangeably and their distinction should be understood.
• Some scholars define Politics as "the science and art of government”.
• "Politics" now means citizen problems interacting with political power.
• It may also refer to compromise or methods to capture and retain power.
• Political Science includes the theory of the state, sovereign power, government functions, lawmaking, elections, citizen rights, policy, and welfare activities.
• Practical politics involves forming and working in government, including administration, laws, and international relations.
• Skill in practical politics comes from "politicking," using manipulation, craftiness, or exploiting sentiments.
• It's often viewed as a 'dirty game' by the public.
• Practical Politics enables positive programs such as removal of untouchability, land reforms, release of bonded laborers, prohibition of human trafficking, introduction of minimum wages, employment generation and empowerment
• "Politics" refers to actual social happenings in society, while Political Science systematically refers to understand it..

Scope of Political Science: Role of the State

• Machiavelli first used the modern sense of the term 'State' (1469-1527) and the study of the State is the focal point for political scientists.
• The State consists of people, territory, government, and sovereignty.
• Modern western liberal thinking arose from the Commercial Revolution (16th century) and the Industrial Revolution (18th century)
• The Revolutions introduced economic system called capitalism.
• The market is a place where goods and services are sold and bought on the basis of demand and supply.
• It operates with no interference by the state.
• Competition hallmark of market and Capitalism hallmark of market are considered two sides of the same coin.
• The consent of the people and states protect individuals from external and internal threats is key.
• A government that governs the least is said to be the best and should be a 'police State'.

Rights

• Rights are claims on the state.
• Natural rights are considered God-given rights acquired before the state's existence.
• The state cannot take away or abridge these rights.
• The Marxist view asserts states are tools of the "haves" to dominate the "have-nots."
• In a future communist society, the state would disappear. The Gandhian idea of State would be a "trustee" of the people.
• The state serves as 'trustee' hold people's power.

Power

• Power enables one person to affect the attitudes/actions of another, potentially without open exercise.
• Convincing someone about what is good/bad is the best form of power which is unchallenged.
• Government power is exercised by ministers, departments, bureaucracy, and governmental administration through laws.
• Power exists in social life, like family, where people hold opinions that inside the private world of family man exercises power or dominance over woman.
• Legitimate power is considered right or proper, while illegitimate power is not power and legitimacy combine to create authority.

Citizens and Government

• The government is the State instrument that realizes its objectives and achieves this throughout the Legislature, the Executive and the Judiciary .
• Government implements laws and maintains peace while resolving conflicts and protecting integrity.
• Modern governments also focus on citizen and societal development, especially in developing countries.
• Citizen/government relationship is reciprocal; citizens are members entitled to rights and responsible for duties.
• As far as citizen rights are concerned, they can be divided into three, civil, political and social.

Citizen Rights include

• Civil rights include the right to life and personal liberty, the right to the freedom of speech, expression and thought, the right to own property, the right to enter into contract, the right to equality before law and equal protection by law.
• Political Rights include the right to vote and contest in election.
• Social Rights include the right to some degrees of economic welfare and security and the right to live the life of a civilized being according what is prevalent in society.
• The Citizens pay taxes and prevent diseases.
• All citizens in a cooperative environment are to solve problems.

Liberty

• The term liberty is derived from Liber, a Latin word meaning free.
• Freedom is of paramount importance for the development of an individual's personality.
• Historically speaking, the term liberty was initially defined as absence of all restraints on an individual.
• Early liberalism championed negative liberty.
• John Stuart Mill described ""Restraint as an evil”.
• Freedom should have reasonable restraint or could neither be possible, nor desirable.
• Positive liberty means freedom to be a master of one’s own self.
• Harold J Laski supported this concept or said freedoms are opportunities essential to developing personalities.
• Restrictions need to be placed on some to ensure others can be free. Positive liberty was supported by later liberals.

Safeguards of Liberty

• The rights of the individuals in the Constitution prevent the government can be prevented from encroaching upon the freedoms of the people.
• Impartial judiciary is rightly called the watchdog of liberty.
• Decentralization of powers safeguards liberty. History is witness to the fact that concentration of power has very often led to despotism.
• Separation of the executive, the legislature and the judiciary safeguards powers.
• Equality in the eyes of the law is an important safeguard of liberty against discrimination based on caste, class, colour, creed, etc.
• Social justice or diffusion of social and economic privileges is a prerequisite of effective liberty.
• A well-knit party system contributes to the preservation of liberty.
• Eternal vigilance, preserves liberty.

Justice

• Term Justice comes from the Latin jus, meaning a bond and reconciler of political values.

Aspects of Justice

• Justice has many constitutions. Distributive Justice - the proper of distribution of income or social position in a given society.
• The conceptions of distributive/social Justice, one is merit and the other is need and equality.

Merit

• Each person's position and wealth should be by merit, with careers the people are open to their talents with equal opportunity.
• Price in market indicates value of the market.
• The price socialist critics say market receipts are affected by chance and background.

Need and Equality

• Allocate goods and positions based on need according to Communism and welfare states

Equality of Opportunity

• Equality does not mean identical rewards or treatment regardless of circumstances.
• Those who write better should get higher marks indicating that equality means absence of privileges and should not be given any opportunity no more than others.
• Equality of condition gives everyone a starting ground like in India the Civil Service examination.

Results (Communitarian Justice)

• The theory of Justice does not take into account merit or need and counts John Rawls.
• Inequalities in allocation of goods permissible if and only if they help the least well off members of a society,

Justice and Liberty with Equality

• Liberty and equality were considered incompatible due to stress on equality according to Acton and Tocqueville, leading the progressive taxation violating properties and liberating poorer societies in the end in conflict.
• Freedom and equality both are two aspects of justice, but they coexist when the notion of Justice allows which freedom with the need of Equality.
• The ultimate objective of both freedom and equality is Justice

Explore political science, its relationship to practical politics, and different perspectives such as Behavioralism and Marxism. Understand the evolution of political science from traditional views to modern perspectives, and key concepts like the 'State'.