Police Discretion and Situational Factors
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Questions and Answers

What is a significant reason for the higher likelihood of black and Asian people being stopped and searched compared to white people?

  • Racial discrimination (correct)
  • Socioeconomic status
  • Criminal history
  • Educational background

What does the concept of 'direct discrimination' refer to in the context of racial disparity in policing?

  • Individual acts of prejudice by police officers
  • Discrimination based on socioeconomic factors
  • A broad societal bias that affects all ethnic groups equally
  • Discrimination that can be directly linked to decision-making (correct)

Which of the following is NOT a critique of the notion of Institutional Discrimination?

  • It fails to clarify the policies causing unequal outcomes
  • It emphasizes the role of individual biases
  • It provides a precise definition and clarity (correct)
  • It conflates individual and collective racism

How can 'indirect discrimination' impact policing practices?

<p>By affecting recruitment and promotion within the police force (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is mentioned as influencing police deployment decisions that may lead to racial disparity?

<p>The level of crime reported in specific neighborhoods (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What term is used to describe the observed disconnect between stated prejudice and actual behavior in policing?

<p>Saying v. Doing (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the evidence suggest about the relationship between racial prejudice and policing practices?

<p>The relationship is complex and not simply defined (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What has been suggested as a contributor to disproportionate involvement in crime among certain ethnic groups?

<p>Association with specific crime types (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the dependent variable in the study of domestic violence perpetrator behavior?

<p>Re-offending by domestic violence perpetrators (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of group includes scenarios where officers made an arrest or separated the parties?

<p>Experimental group (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What aspect has shown to exert the most influence on an officer's decision to arrest in domestic violence incidents?

<p>Situational variables (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What main critique was raised regarding the DASH risk identification tool?

<p>It is too focused on physical violence and neglects coercive control. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a limitation commonly associated with social science research as indicated by the Pseudo R² statistic?

<p>It is typically very low. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What factor was notably excluded from the multivariate models concerning arrest decisions in domestic violence incidents?

<p>Time and resource levels (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect of policing is central to understanding the patterns of police behavior?

<p>Police occupational culture (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In evaluating the effectiveness of policing strategies, what critical approach has been emphasized?

<p>Considering both process and outcome evaluations (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one of the key benefits of arrest in cases of domestic violence?

<p>Allows time for the victim to feel safer (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following levels is NOT part of the ecological model addressing domestic violence?

<p>Global (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to victim perspectives, what primarily determines victim satisfaction with police?

<p>Police demeanour and behaviour in relation to expectations (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What message does an arrest send to the perpetrator in a domestic violence situation?

<p>Their behavior is not acceptable and will not be tolerated (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the concept of positive/zero/negative disconfirmation refer to?

<p>The expectations of victims regarding police service outcomes (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one key reason for the limitations of a 'one-size-fits-all' approach in addressing domestic violence?

<p>Victims face unique, intersecting challenges (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is an important aspect of police behaviour that affects victim satisfaction?

<p>Collecting evidence and making arrests (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What positive outcome can result from an arrest in terms of future offending?

<p>It can generate a PNC ID and obtain DNA and fingerprints (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does police discretion primarily allow officers to do?

<p>Selectively apply rules based on circumstances (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one reason police officers must use discretion in their roles?

<p>Different situations require different judgments (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is NOT mentioned as influencing police discretion?

<p>Officer's personal opinions (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does the immediate environment play in police discretion?

<p>It shapes how officers perceive situations (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is considered a situational feature that may affect police discretion?

<p>Seriousness of the crime (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about the nature of discretion in policing is accurate?

<p>Every police decision involves an element of judgement (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the vagueness of criminal law impact police discretion?

<p>It may lead to conflicting interpretations of law (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why might a police officer decide not to follow a strict procedure in an incident?

<p>Discretion allows for adaptability to specific circumstances (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the 'threshold score' in facial recognition systems indicate?

<p>The level of certainty about a positive match before an alert is sent. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following factors affects the performance of a facial recognition system?

<p>Quality of the watchlist images (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What human factor is essential in assisted facial recognition systems?

<p>The discretion of individual officers (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the 2017 Champions League incident, what was a significant outcome noted?

<p>A large number of incorrect alerts with few investigations (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was one of the measures taken after the 2017 Champions League incident?

<p>Improved quality of custody images (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about operator involvement in facial recognition systems is correct?

<p>Officers often use background information in their decision-making. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What major challenge did the facial recognition system face during the Cardiff event?

<p>Processing an overwhelming number of faces. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a technical aspect that affects the facial recognition system?

<p>The algorithm's black box nature (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does police discretion affect the formulation of watchlists in law enforcement?

<p>Discretionary decisions influence who is included on watchlists. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant drawback of bureaucratic suspicion in policing?

<p>It can frame individuals as warranting suspicion without evidence. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of decision-making is more likely to lead to discrimination in policing?

<p>Subjective judgments influenced by personal opinions. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In what way does technology influence police discretion?

<p>Technology can reformulate how discretion is exercised. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characteristic of demographic factors contributes to potential discrimination in policing?

<p>Socio-economic factors like unemployment and poverty. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best reflects the relationship between LFR and RFR technology in policing?

<p>LFR typically engages with live deployments, while RFR analyzes past events. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Under what conditions is indirect discrimination likely to occur in policing?

<p>When certain areas are prioritized without clear criteria. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a critical aspect of 'reformulated discretion' in police practices?

<p>It begins with technological recognition rather than officer discretion. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Police Discretion

The ability of police officers to choose which laws to enforce and how to enforce them, within departmental guidelines.

Reasons for Police Discretion

Different crimes and situations require different responses. There's no one-size-fits-all guide for every incident.

Factors Influencing Police Discretion (Criminal Law)

Vague or conflicting criminal laws make it hard for police to decide how to apply them.

Factors Influencing Police Discretion (Police Environment)

Limited supervision and private encounters affect how police officers act.

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Factors Influencing Police Discretion (Resources)

Limited resources prevent police from enforcing every law all the time.

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Situational Features (Crime)

Factors like the seriousness of the crime, strength of evidence, and victim preferences influence police decisions.

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Situational Features (Suspect)

Suspect's behavior, condition, and relationship with the victim impact decisions.

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Immediate Work Environment

Location, time, and officer characteristics (race, gender, education) influence decision-making.

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Experimental group in domestic violence research

In a study of domestic violence, the group of incidents where officers made an arrest or separated the parties.

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Control group in domestic violence research

In a study of domestic violence, the group of incidents where officers offered advice or mediated the situation.

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Dependent variable (domestic violence)

The outcome measured in a study of domestic violence; in this case, whether the perpetrator re-offended.

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Situational variable (arrest decision)

Factors in a domestic violence incident that influence an officer's decision to arrest, such as witnesses present or victim/suspect cohabitation.

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Risk-led policing (DASH model)

A policing approach that aims to manage domestic abuse risk by focusing on identifying and assessing individual risk.

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Cop culture

The shared values, beliefs, and attitudes that shape the behavior of police officers.

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Pseudo R²

A measure of how well a particular set of variables explains a phenomenon. Usually low in social science research.

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Cross-sectional vs. longitudinal research

Two different types of research designs. Cross-sectional studies examine data at a single point in time; longitudinal studies collect data over an extended period. In domestic violence, the "chicken and egg problem" is a key consideration with cross-sectional data.

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Racial Discrimination in Policing

Biased policing practices disproportionately targeting specific racial groups, leading to unequal outcomes.

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Direct Discrimination (Policing)

Explicitly biased actions by police officers based on racial prejudice.

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Institutional Discrimination (Policing)

Systemic, embedded biases within police policies and practices that result in unequal outcomes.

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Indirect Discrimination (Policing)

Policies or practices, seemingly neutral, that disproportionately disadvantage specific groups.

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Deployment Decisions

Choices in policing resources (e.g., patrols), potentially biased against specific ethnic groups.

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Disproportionate Crime Involvement

A tendency for certain ethnic groups to be disproportionately involved in criminal activity, which may be complex and not racially motivated.

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Police Policies and Structures

Formal rules and organizational setups within police departments, sometimes perpetuating discriminatory practices.

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Facial Recognition System (FRS)

A technology that identifies individuals by comparing their faces to a database of known images.

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Algorithm

The set of rules and calculations that a facial recognition system uses to match faces.

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'Threshold Score'

The level of confidence required by the FRS before it sends an alert to the operator. Higher scores mean more certainty.

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Faces per Frame

How many faces a system can analyze in a single snapshot (image).

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Camera Zoom

The level of detail the camera can capture, affecting the quality of images used for facial recognition.

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Operator Discretion

An officer's judgment and ability to decide how to interpret and respond to alerts from the facial recognition system.

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Impact of Watchlist Quality

Poor image quality in databases can lead to incorrect matches by the system.

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Live Police Environment

The real-world setting where facial recognition technology is used by police.

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LFR Deployment

The decision to use live facial recognition technology in public spaces, often for surveillance or crime prevention.

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Watchlist Creation

Creating lists of individuals who are considered potential threats or persons of interest, based on past arrests or information on their potential for future offenses.

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Facial Recognition & Discretion

Facial recognition technology allows officers to make discretionary decisions, such as whether there's a match and if further action is required.

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Bureaucratic Suspicion

The tendency for systems like facial recognition to view individuals on watchlists as inherently suspicious, even without concrete evidence.

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Discrimination & Discretion

Discrimination is more likely when police decisions are based on subjective judgments and lack clear guidelines.

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Demographic Factors & Crime

Demographic factors, like age and socioeconomic status, can influence how certain groups are viewed by police and the likelihood of coming into contact with law enforcement.

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LFR vs. RFR

Live Facial Recognition (LFR) is used for real-time surveillance, while Retrospective Facial Recognition (RFR) is used to analyze past footage. Both raise different challenges regarding discretion and potential biases.

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Ecological Model of Domestic Violence

This model views domestic violence as a complex issue that involves multiple levels of influence. It examines the individual, interpersonal, community, and societal factors that contribute to the problem.

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Benefits of Arrest in Domestic Violence

There are several benefits to arresting the perpetrator in domestic violence cases. These include: providing a safer environment for the victim, disrupting the abuse cycle, allowing for investigations, and offering support services.

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Victim Satisfaction with Police Response

Research suggests that victim satisfaction with police response depends on whether the police live up to their expectations. Meeting or exceeding expectations leads to positive disconfirmation and high satisfaction.

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Police Behavior vs. Demeanor

While both police behavior and demeanor influence victim satisfaction, research suggests that the victim's satisfaction is more significantly impacted by the police's demeanor, such as courtesy and respect, than specific actions taken.

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Positive Disconfirmation

This happens when the police exceed the victim's expectations in their response to a domestic violence incident, leading to a higher level of satisfaction.

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Zero Disconfirmation

This occurs when the police meet the victim's expectations, resulting in neutral satisfaction. There's neither a positive nor negative reaction.

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Negative Disconfirmation

When the police fail to meet the victim's expectations, leading to a negative perception and dissatisfaction.

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Impact of Arrest on Victims

Victims often report feeling safer and supported when police arrest the perpetrator in domestic violence cases. The arrest reinforces the seriousness of the offense and provides a sense of justice.

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Study Notes

Police Discretion

  • Police discretion is the unwritten rule that officers can be selective in their duties, as long as they stay within departmental guidelines.
  • Discretion is used in various situations because there's no guidebook for every specific incident.
  • Factors influencing discretion include:
    • Criminal law complexities: vague definitions and conflicting explanations can make applications difficult.
    • Police environment: limited supervision in private encounters.
    • Limited resources: myth of full enforcement, investigations, etc.
    • Situational features: seriousness, evidence, victim preference and relationship, victim characteristics, suspect demeanor, volume and aggression.

Situational Features of Incidents

  • Factors in determining an incident's characteristics:
    • Seriousness of the crime.
    • Quality of evidence.
    • Victim's preferences.
    • Relationships between suspect and victim.
    • Victim characteristics (e.g., reputation, conduct).
    • Suspect demeanour and condition.
    • Volume and aggression.

Immediate Work Environment

  • Location, time and force characteristics.
  • Officer characteristics (e.g., race, gender, education)

Police Discretion: A Defining Characteristic

  • Police discretion is the defining characteristic of police work
  • It's concentrated in lower ranks of police organizations.
  • Discretion is necessary and full enforcement is unattainable in many police-citizen encounters.

CJS and Discretion

  • CJS lacks resources and time for full enforcement.
  • People involved may not wish to press charges or police may use discretion in non-compulsory situations.

Research in Policing

  • University academics, students, national/local governments, police services, and research institutes conduct policing-related research.

Evaluating Police Practices via EBP

  • Lawrence Sherman established the Cambridge Centre for EBP.
  • Three R (Triple T): Targeting, Testing, and Tracking.

Policing Domestic Violence

  • Police response varies in different jurisdictions and cultures.
  • Police response is affected by the seriousness of the violence or crime.

Over-Policing

  • There is an under-representation of ethnic minorities in policing and as victims.
  • Over-policing of ethnic minorities exists as suspects.
  • Stop and search, arrests, and use of force are disproportionately higher for ethnic minorities.

Policing Organizational Culture

  • Police often follow rational-legal views—hierarchical force impartially enforcing laws (until 1970s).
  • Increasingly, policing is viewed through a sociology lens, focusing on the ‘law in action’ rather than solely on the ‘law in books.
  • Police work often has wide discretion, limited resources and vague laws.
  • Early policing research moved away from rational-legal explanations, focusing on occupational culture.
  • Police officers have a distinctive outlook on the world, stemming from their beliefs, values, and informal rules.

Limitations of Policing Research

  • Ethical challenges include informed consent and time commitment.
  • "Hawthorne effect" when participants know they are being observed.
  • Researcher biases; going native, affecting objectivity.
  • Representativeness in samples is difficult.
  • Replicability of studies.

Qualitative Interviews

  • Enables in-depth examination of police experiences, including values/perspectives, experiences, and practices.

Quantitative Surveys

  • Standardized measures allow for statistical testing and generalization from representative samples to wider populations.

Policing Culture

  • Factors affecting policing culture include:
    • Sense of mission.
    • Cynicism and pessimism.
    • Suspicion and isolation.
    • Solidarity and machismo.
    • Prejudice and conservatism.
  • Selection and socialisation hypotheses on police culture.
  • Standard responses for reforming policing culture and practice include recruitment, training and the ‘micro’ and ‘macro level’ approaches.

Zero Tolerance Policing

  • Introduced in the 1970s/80s and associated with ‘restorative justice’.
  • ‘Broken Windows’ theory: disorder/incivilities lead to higher crime rates.
  • Critique: may not have a causal connection, focuses on disorder but does not solve the root problem of inequality.
  • May involve clampdowns on visible disorder and petty crime, which often disproportionately affect minority communities.

Impact of Police Practices

  • Changing crime rates, especially homicide and property crimes, as a result of police responses (and often other factors).

Symbolic Use of Zero Tolerance

  • Zero Tolerance terminology, particularly associated with recent politicians (e.g., Tony Blair).
  • Policing focused on 'disorder' and 'incivilities'.
  • Influence on related legislation, such as antisocial behaviour orders.
  • Academic debate continues on the effectiveness and impact of these practices.
    • Benefits and limitations: symbolic value and crime reduction, police corruption.

Police Operational Characteristics

  • Modern policing, as with other areas, is often subjected to financial pressures (e.g., budgetary constraints).
  • Police roles often shift due to changing technology (e.g., facial recognition, body-worn cameras, etc.).

Policing Technology

  • Facial recognition technology has become increasingly important and contentious in policing.
  • Deployment factors include: organizational (policing routines, policies), and technical (algorithms, software, hardware).
  • Consequences and ethical considerations include: increased biases and disproportionality, algorithmic bias, lack of transparency and equitable treatment.

Policing Practices and Community Relationships

  • Community policing and public relationships are often neglected due to police culture and organisational issues.
  • Policing strategies that support and foster positive relationships with local communities are more effective.

Domestic Violence Policing

  • Historical police response in domestic violence cases was often non-interventionist.
  • Modern policies encourage proactive intervention, arresting perpetrators, and supporting victims.
  • National and international policing policies emphasize and are shaped by legal requirements, procedural justice, human rights and community-based approaches.
  • Modern policies have been influenced by advocacy (media, court cases, and criminological research).

Evaluating Police Practices (the Minneapolis Domestic Violence Experiment)

  • Arresting suspects in domestic violence cases may not deter future violence.
  • Some research shows that simply intervening in domestic abuse, through better training for police, can improve community relations and reduce repeat offences.

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Police Discretion PDF

Description

Explore the concept of police discretion and the various situational factors that influence how officers respond to incidents. This quiz delves into the complexities of criminal law, police environment, and the impact of victim and suspect characteristics on decision-making. Test your understanding of these crucial aspects of law enforcement.

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