Plant Characteristics and Non-Flowering Plants
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Questions and Answers

What is the primary function of the endodermis in plant roots?

  • To provide structural support to the root
  • To facilitate water and nutrient movement to the xylem (correct)
  • To store starch reserves
  • To initiate lateral root formation

Which tissue in the vascular bundle is responsible for transporting water?

  • Phloem
  • Sclerenchyma
  • Cambium
  • Xylem (correct)

What distinguishes gymnosperms from other plant types regarding their reproductive structures?

  • They produce seeds enclosed in fruits
  • They bear naked seeds within cones (correct)
  • Their reproductive organs are flowers
  • They reproduce exclusively via spores

In a dicot root structure, which layer is located directly beneath the endodermis?

<p>Pericycle (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following plants is primarily comprised of coniferous species?

<p>Cold and mountainous regions (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which characteristic is not typical of gymnosperms?

<p>Seed enclosed within a fruit (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of cells compose the pith in young roots?

<p>Thin-walled, rounded or polygonal cells (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which layer of the dicot root is responsible for water and food storage?

<p>Cortex (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the seed develops into the primary root system of the seedling?

<p>Radicle (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In dicot seeds, what moves food into the cotyledons, which become the main food store?

<p>Endosperm (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What benefit does seed dispersal provide to plants?

<p>Decreases competition for resources (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following components is NOT part of a seed's embryo?

<p>Cotyledon (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does seed dispersal contribute to genetic diversity in plant populations?

<p>By allowing seeds to be spread over larger areas (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about the seed coat is correct?

<p>It protects the seed embryo from injury and pests. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of the endosperm in a monocot seed?

<p>To provide reserve food for the embryo (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which agent is commonly involved in the dispersal of seeds?

<p>Wind (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of chlorophyll in photosynthesis?

<p>To absorb light energy for photochemical reactions (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In which part of the chloroplast does the light-dependent stage of photosynthesis occur?

<p>Granum (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of light does chlorophyll reflect, causing leaves to appear green?

<p>Green light (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic that distinguishes plants from other living organisms?

<p>Presence of a rigid cell wall (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

During photosynthesis, which substance is synthesized in the stroma?

<p>Glucose (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following plant groups primarily reproduces through spores?

<p>Bryophytes (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the thylakoid lumen in the process of photosynthesis?

<p>Intermediary for proton motive force generation (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant characteristic of flowering plants compared to non-flowering plants?

<p>They produce flowers for reproduction (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of wavelengths between 400 nm and 500 nm for photosynthesis?

<p>They are primarily absorbed for energy in photosynthesis. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about heterotrophs is correct?

<p>They rely on organic compounds from other organisms for sustenance. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements is true regarding non-vascular plants?

<p>They require a moist environment for survival and do not have a transporting system (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What byproduct is produced during the photosynthesis process?

<p>Oxygen gas (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does chlorophyll play in plant cells?

<p>It allows the plant to absorb sunlight for photosynthesis (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of NADPH in the light-independent reactions?

<p>Reducing 3-PGA to G3P (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which component is NOT part of xylem structure and function?

<p>Living cells aiding in translocation (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How many ATP molecules are needed for one turn of the Calvin cycle?

<p>3 ATP (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main function of phloem in plants?

<p>Translocation of organic substances like sucrose (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens to G3P molecules after they exit the Calvin cycle?

<p>They are converted to glucose and other carbohydrates (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about transpiration in xylem is correct?

<p>Transpiration pull facilitates the movement of water (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the process of testing a leaf for starch, which statement is accurate?

<p>Starch accumulation indicates successful photosynthesis in leaves (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is necessary for the regeneration of RuBP from G3P?

<p>ATP from light-dependent reactions (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is produced in the thylakoid lumen as a result of water oxidation by photosystem II?

<p>O2 (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which enzyme is responsible for fixing carbon dioxide during the light-independent reactions?

<p>Ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which process utilizes the H+ electrochemical gradient to synthesize ATP in the stroma?

<p>Chemiosmosis (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the light reactions of photosynthesis, what replaces the electrons lost by chlorophyll in photosystem I?

<p>Electrons from photosystem II (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the three key products produced by the light reactions of photosynthesis?

<p>O2, ATP, and NADPH (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

During the reduction phase of the light-independent reactions, which compounds are primarily utilized?

<p>ATP and NADPH (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the unstable six-carbon intermediate formed from the reaction of CO2 with ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate (RuBP)?

<p>3-phosphoglycerate (3-PGA) (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of chemiosmosis in the light reactions of photosynthesis?

<p>Production of ATP (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which reproductive method do liverworts primarily utilize?

<p>Both sexual and asexual reproduction through an alternation of generations (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of rhizoids in lower plants?

<p>Anchoring the plant and absorbing water and nutrients (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In vascular plants, which structures are necessary for the transportation of water and nutrients?

<p>Xylem and phloem (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the angiosperm shoot system is responsible for vertical growth?

<p>Apical buds (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Ferns reproduce through spores that are produced in specialized structures called:

<p>Sori (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which structure in flowering plants serves as the site for potential lateral branch growth?

<p>Axillary bud (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the sporophyte phase in the plant life cycle?

<p>To create spore-producing bodies (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of environment do most ferns prefer for growth?

<p>Damp, shady areas (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of the pericycle in the structure of dicot roots?

<p>Formation of lateral roots (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately describes the pith in young and old roots?

<p>Pith is only present in young roots (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following correctly describes the endodermis function?

<p>Regulates movement of water and nutrients (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characteristic of gymnosperms is primarily responsible for their survival in cold climates?

<p>Evergreen foliage that retains leaves year-round (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What key feature distinguishes vascular bundles in stems?

<p>Cambium allows for lateral growth (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In terms of their reproductive structure, gymnosperms primarily rely on which feature?

<p>Production of naked seeds within cones (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which layer is directly above the endodermis in a dicot root’s structure?

<p>Pericycle (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What component of gymnosperms aids in their classification as evergreen?

<p>Presence of needles instead of broad leaves (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes tap roots from fibrous roots?

<p>Tap roots penetrate deep into the soil, while fibrous roots primarily absorb water from the surface. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the leaf is primarily responsible for maximum light absorption?

<p>The lamina because of its broad and flat surface. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of roots in plants?

<p>Anchorage and nutrient absorption. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which component of the leaf aids in gas exchange?

<p>The stomata embedded in the lamina. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the fibrous root system?

<p>It consists of a network of small roots that spreads out in the soil. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What structural feature of leaves aids in their ability to collect sunlight?

<p>Thinness of the lamina promoting gas exchange. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of roots are typically associated with plants that have a thick network for soil retention?

<p>Fibrous roots which are efficient at absorbing moisture close to the surface. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following structures is NOT found in the internal layer of a leaf?

<p>Cotyledon. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the pollen tube during fertilization in gymnosperms?

<p>It transports the sperm cells to the egg cell. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of cone is responsible for producing pollen grains in conifers?

<p>Microsporangiate cone (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens to the three egg cells produced during the ovule's meiosis in female cones?

<p>They degenerate and do not play a role in reproduction. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

During the life cycle of gymnosperms, what is the primary purpose of the male gamete?

<p>To fertilize the ovule. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes the leaves of conifer trees?

<p>They have a waxy cuticle and are needle-shaped. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which process moves pollen from the male cone to the female cone in gymnosperms?

<p>Pollination (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes the zygote after fertilization in gymnosperms?

<p>It becomes the seed embryo inside the ovule. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In what way do conifer trees manage their leaf loss compared to deciduous trees?

<p>They shed and replace leaves continuously throughout the year. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is required for the regeneration of RuBP from G3P?

<p>ATP (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which component enters the light-independent reactions to help convert CO2 into G3P?

<p>ATP (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What drives the movement of water in the xylem?

<p>Transpiration pull (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following correctly describes the structure of phloem?

<p>Made up of living cells arranged end to end (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of the Calvin cycle?

<p>To fix carbon dioxide into organic compounds (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement is true regarding the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis?

<p>They produce oxygen as a byproduct (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

After two G3P are produced in the Calvin cycle, they can be converted into which compound?

<p>Glucose (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In which part of the plant does translocation occur?

<p>In the phloem specifically (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary reason the cuticle of a leaf is impermeable to iodine?

<p>It contains waxy layers that inhibit dye absorption. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which component of vascular bundles is responsible for the transport of organic matter like sucrose and amino acids?

<p>Phloem. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is the transport of water in xylem considered a passive process?

<p>It is driven by transpiration pull. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What defines the process of translocation in phloem?

<p>The movement of food up and down the plant. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do root hairs enhance water absorption in plants?

<p>By increasing the surface area for absorption. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens to the concentration of cytoplasm in root hair cells when water enters?

<p>It becomes more dilute. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of starch accumulation in storage organs of plants?

<p>It serves as a longer-term energy source. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of the xylem in plants?

<p>Transporting water and minerals from roots to leaves. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Plant Characteristics

Plants are living organisms that grow, reproduce, and react to environmental changes. They are multicellular, eukaryotic, and contain a rigid cell wall.

Plant Cell Walls

Plant cells have a tough outer layer mostly made of cellulose, unlike animal cells.

Autotrophic Plants

Plants make their own food using sunlight and chlorophyll.

Sessile Plants

Plants are fixed in one place and cannot move.

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Non-vascular Plants

Plants like mosses and liverworts that lack specialized tissues for transporting water/nutrients.

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Endodermis function

Innermost layer of the cortex separating it from vascular bundles; acts as a food reserve (starch sheath) and regulates water and nutrient movement into xylem.

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Vascular bundles structure

Longitudinal strands of conducting tissues (xylem and phloem) arranged in a ring around the stem's pith, with xylem toward pith, phloem toward endodermis, and cambium in between.

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Root's outer layer

Epidermis (piliferous layer) in roots; single layer of cells including root hairs, without cuticle.

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Root cortex function

Multi-layered region of loosely arranged cells with intercellular spaces, storing food and water.

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Pericycle location

Single layer of cells inside the endodermis, involved in lateral root formation.

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Pith location

Central part of the stem (and sometimes young roots) composed of thin-walled cells; stores food and potentially assists in water/nutrient transport.

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Gymnosperm characteristic

Vascular plants with naked seeds found in cones, often evergreen, and dominant in cold/mountainous regions

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Gymnosperm reproduction

Sexual reproduction resulting in a seed not enclosed in a fruit

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Seed embryo parts

The seed embryo consists of the radicle (future root), epicotyl, hypocotyl, and plumule (future shoot).

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Cotyledon/Endosperm

Food storage tissues for the embryo until it can make its own food.

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Seed coat (testa)

The protective outer layer of a seed that safeguards the embryo from damage and drying.

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Seed dispersal

The movement of seeds away from the parent plant to promote plant survival and avoid overcrowding.

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Seed dispersal agents

Animals, water, and wind that carry seeds away from the parent plant.

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Monocot food storage

In monocots, the endosperm is the main food storage.

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Dicot food storage

In dicots, the cotyledons store food.

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Seed Germination

The process where a seed sprouts into a new plant.

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Photosynthesis

A series of chemical reactions using light energy to convert carbon dioxide into glucose, using water and releasing oxygen.

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Chlorophyll

A green pigment in chloroplasts that absorbs sunlight for photosynthesis.

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Chloroplast

The organelle in plant cells where photosynthesis takes place.

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Grana

Stacks of thylakoids in chloroplasts, where light-dependent reactions occur.

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Stroma

The fluid-filled space around the thylakoids in chloroplasts, site of light-independent reactions.

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Thylakoid

Flattened sacs within grana where light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis happen.

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Light-dependent reactions

The first stage of photosynthesis, where light energy is converted into chemical energy.

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Light-independent reactions

The second stage of photosynthesis, where carbon dioxide is converted into glucose.

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Proton Pump in ETC

A protein complex in the cytochrome complex of the electron transport chain (ETC) that pumps protons (H+) from the stroma into the thylakoid lumen, creating a proton gradient.

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Chemiosmosis in Photosynthesis

The process where the proton gradient created by the proton pump drives the synthesis of ATP by ATP synthase in the thylakoid membrane.

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Photosystem I Electrons

Excited electrons in photosystem I escape chlorophyll and are replaced by electrons from the ETC originating in photosystem II.

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Second ETC (ETC2)

The second electron transport chain in photosynthesis involves ferredoxin (Fd) and NADP reductase. Electrons move from photosystem I to NADP+.

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NADPH Production

Reduced NADPH is formed in the stroma when electrons from ETC2 react with protons and NADP+.

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Light Reactions Summary

The light reactions of photosynthesis produce oxygen (O2), NADPH, and ATP using light energy.

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Dark Reactions (Calvin Cycle)

The light-independent reactions, also known as the Calvin cycle, occur in the stroma and use ATP and NADPH from the light reactions to fix CO2 and create glucose.

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Carbon Fixation

The process where inorganic CO2 is converted into organic compounds like glucose.

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What is the goal of the Calvin cycle?

To use the chemical energy stored in ATP and NADPH to convert carbon dioxide into glucose.

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What is the starting molecule for the Calvin cycle?

RuBP (ribulose bisphosphate) is a five-carbon sugar molecule that reacts with CO2.

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What is the function of G3P in the Calvin cycle?

Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P) is a three-carbon sugar produced by the Calvin cycle. Some G3P molecules are used to make glucose, while others are recycled back into RuBP.

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What is the role of xylem in plants?

Xylem is a type of vascular tissue that transports water and minerals from the roots to the leaves.

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What is the role of phloem in plants?

Phloem is a type of vascular tissue that transports sugars (food) from the leaves to the rest of the plant.

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How does water move through the xylem?

Water moves through the xylem due to transpiration pull. This is the force created by the evaporation of water from leaves.

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What is translocation?

Translocation is the process of actively moving sugars through the phloem.

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How can you test for starch in a leaf?

You can test for starch in a leaf by using iodine solution: a dark blue-black color indicates the presence of starch.

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Root Types

There are two main types of roots: taproots and fibrous roots.

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Taproot Function

A taproot provides stability for the plant, anchors it deeply, and absorbs water from deeper soil layers.

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Fibrous Root Function

Fibrous roots create a dense network, hold soil together to prevent erosion, and efficiently absorb water near the surface.

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Leaf Structure

A leaf consists of a petiole (stalk), a blade (lamina), and a base.

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Leaf Blade Function

The leaf blade is the main light-collecting surface. Its flat shape maximizes sunlight absorption, and its thinness allows for gas exchange.

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Midrib Function

The midrib is the central vein of the leaf, providing support and transporting water and nutrients.

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Vein Function

Veins branch out from the midrib, carrying water and nutrients throughout the leaf, and supporting its structure.

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Leaf Margin

The leaf margin is the edge or boundary of the leaf blade.

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What are rhizoids?

Rhizoids are simple root-like structures found in non-vascular plants like mosses and liverworts. They help anchor the plant to the soil and absorb water and nutrients, but they lack the strength of true roots.

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What is the life cycle of non-vascular plants?

Non-vascular plants have an alternation of generations. The dominant stage is the haploid gametophyte, which produces male and female gametes. Fertilization results in a diploid sporophyte, which produces spores that develop into new gametophytes.

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What is the function of antheridia?

Antheridia are male reproductive structures in non-vascular plants. They produce and release sperm.

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What is the function of archegonia?

Archegonia are female reproductive structures in non-vascular plants. They produce and house eggs.

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What is the importance of vascular tissue?

Xylem and phloem form the vascular tissue in plants. Xylem transports water and minerals from the roots to the leaves, while phloem carries sugars (food) from the leaves to the rest of the plant. This allows for efficient transport and growth.

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What are the parts of the shoot system?

The shoot system, found above ground, includes the stem, branches, leaves, buds, flowers, and fruits. It supports the plant and facilitates photosynthesis.

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Node and Internode

Nodes are specific points on the stem where leaves or branches grow. Internodes are the sections of the stem between two nodes.

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What is the function of the apical bud?

The apical bud, located at the tip of the plant stem, contains meristematic cells responsible for the vertical growth of the plant.

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Conifer leaves

Conifer leaves are typically small, needle-shaped, and covered in a waxy cuticle. This helps them conserve water and resist extreme temperatures.

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Conifer cone types

Conifer trees produce two types of cones: male cones that produce pollen and female cones that contain ovules.

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Conifer pollination steps

Conifer pollination occurs when wind carries pollen from male cones to female cones. The pollen lands on the ovule, where it forms a pollen tube to reach the egg cell.

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Conifer fertilization

After pollination, a sperm cell from the pollen tube fertilizes an egg cell inside the ovule, forming a zygote. This zygote develops into a seed embryo.

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Conifer seed dispersal

Conifer seeds are typically dispersed by wind. They are often winged which helps them to be carried further away from the parent tree.

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Conifer seed

Conifer seeds are naked, small, and winged. They contain a seed embryo and are protected by a hardened seed coat.

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Conifer examples?

Common conifers include pines, firs, spruces, yews, and junipers. They are often evergreen and thrive in cold climates.

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Conifer life cycle:

The conifer life cycle involves the following stages: cone formation, pollination, fertilization, seed formation, seed dispersal, and germination.

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Calvin Cycle Goal

The Calvin cycle uses ATP and NADPH from the light-dependent reactions to convert carbon dioxide into glucose.

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What is RuBP?

RuBP, or ribulose bisphosphate, is a five-carbon sugar molecule that reacts with CO2 in the first step of the Calvin cycle.

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What is G3P?

Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P) is a three-carbon sugar produced by the Calvin cycle. Some G3P molecules exit the cycle to make glucose, while others are recycled back into RuBP.

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Xylem Function

Xylem is a type of vascular tissue that transports water and minerals from the roots to the leaves.

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Phloem Function

Phloem is a type of vascular tissue that transports sugars (food) from the leaves to the rest of the plant.

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Transpiration Pull

Transpiration pull is the force created by the evaporation of water from leaves that draws water up through the xylem.

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Translocation

Translocation is the active process of moving sugars through the phloem using energy.

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Testing for Starch

To test for starch in a leaf, use iodine solution: a dark blue-black color indicates the presence of starch.

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Iodine Test for Starch

A blue-black color appears when iodine solution is applied to a substance containing starch, such as powdered starch, bread, or potato.

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Leaf Cuticle

The waxy outer layer of a leaf, called the cuticle, prevents iodine from reaching the internal starch for testing.

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Pith function

The central part of the stem composed of thin-walled cells. It stores food and helps in the internal transport of water.

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How does water move in the xylem?

Water moves up the xylem due to transpiration pull, a force created by the evaporation of water from leaves.

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Pericycle function

A single layer of cells found inside the endodermis. It is responsible for the formation of lateral roots (roots that branch off from the main root).

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Root Hairs Function

Root hairs are tiny extensions of root cells that increase the surface area for water absorption.

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Gymnosperm seed characteristic

Gymnosperms produce seeds that are not enclosed within a fruit. These seeds are usually found within cones.

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Gymnosperm habitat

Gymnosperms are often found in cold and mountainous regions. Many are evergreen conifers that maintain their leaves year-round.

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How does water enter the roots?

Water enters the root through root hairs by osmosis across the cell membrane and cytoplasm or by diffusion through the cell wall.

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Study Notes

Plant Characteristics

  • Plants are multicellular organisms, made up of eukaryotic cells with well-defined nuclei and membrane-bound organelles.
  • Plant cells have a rigid cell wall primarily made of cellulose, in addition to a cell membrane.
  • Plants are autotrophic (self-feeding), using chlorophyll to absorb sunlight and produce their own food.
  • Plants are sessile; they cannot move by themselves.
  • Plants reproduce both asexually and sexually.
  • Lower plants (e.g., mosses and liverworts) primarily reproduce asexually via spores.
  • Higher plants (e.g., gymnosperms and angiosperms) primarily reproduce sexually, involving gametes.

Non-Flowering Plants

  • Bryophytes include mosses and liverworts.
  • Pteridophytes include ferns.
  • Gymnosperms include conifers.
  • These plants lack vascular tissue (xylem and phloem), which are important for transporting water and nutrients.
  • Non-vascular plants are typically small with limited height, often found in moist habitats.

Flowering Plants (Angiosperms)

  • Angiosperms have a vascular system (xylem and phloem) to transport water and nutrients.
  • The plant parts above ground are the shoot system, including leaves, stems, buds, flowers, and fruits.
  • The root system includes the tap root and lateral roots which help anchor the plant.
  • The shoot system consists of nodes and internodes where leaves and branches emerge.
  • Nodes are points on the stem where leaves attach, and internodes are the segment between nodes.
  • Apical buds are at the tip of the plant stem, causing vertical growth.
  • Axillary buds are in the angle between the leaf and stem and lead to lateral branch growth.

Root System

  • Two types of roots exist: tap roots and fibrous roots.
  • Tap roots are large, primary vertical roots with few lateral roots, characteristic of dicot plants.
  • Fibrous roots are thin and moderately branching, often seen in monocot plants.

Leaf Structure

  • Leaf blades (laminae): The broad, flat surface of the leaf, maximizing sunlight absorption.
  • Midrib: The central vein running through the leaf, supporting structure and containing transport vessels
  • Veins: Smaller vascular structures branching from the midrib, transporting water and nutrients.
  • Apex: The tip of the leaf
  • Base: Base of the leaf where it attaches to the stem via petiole.
  • Petiole: The stalk that connects the leaf blade to the stem.
  • Margins: Boundary of the leaf blade

Internal Leaf Structure

  • Epidermis is a single layer of cells covering the upper and lower surfaces of the leaf.
    • The upper epidermis is usually covered in a waxy cuticle, reducing water loss. Stomata ("little mouths") are in the lower epidermis, regulating gas exchange and water loss.
  • The mesophyll layer is located between the upper and lower epidermis, where photosynthesis occurs.
    • Palisade cells are closely packed columnar cells located immediately beneath the upper epidermis, maximizing sunlight absorption.
    • Spongy mesophyll cells are irregularly shaped cells with spaces between them, facilitating gas exchange.

Photosynthesis

  • Photosynthesis is the process of using light energy to produce food (glucose) from carbon dioxide and water in plants, algae, and some bacteria.
  • The reaction occurs using chlorophyll in chloroplasts.

Transpiration

  • Transpiration is the process where water moves from the plant's roots to the leaves through the xylem.
  • This process helps cool the plant and pull water and minerals from the soil.

Transport in Plants

  • Xylem transports water and minerals from roots to leaves.
  • Phloem transports sugars and other organic compounds from leaves to other parts of the plant.

Seed Dispersal and Germination

  • Seeds are dispersed by various agents such as wind, water, animals, etc.
  • Germination is the resumption of growth for the seed embryo to form a seedling.

Photosynthetic Apparatus

  • Chloroplasts have two main parts- grana stacks (thylakoids), and stroma.
  • The grana is where the light-dependent reaction of photosynthesis happens, and the stroma is the site for light-independent reaction.
  • Chlorophyll is the pigment absorbing light in photosynthesis.

Reproductive Structures of Gymnosperms

  • Reproduction in gymnosperms occurs in cones.
  • Seeds are not enclosed in fruit.
  • Male cones produce pollen, and female cones produce ovules.
  • Pollen is dispersed largely by wind.

Reproductive Structures of Angiosperms

  • Reproduction in angiosperms occurs in flowers.
  • Seeds are enclosed in fruit.
  • Flowers typically have sepals (calyx), petals (corolla), stamens (androecium), and pistills (gynoecium).
  • Stamens are the male reproductive parts of a flower, consisting of filaments and anthers, which produce pollen.
  • Pistils are the female reproductive parts of a flower, consisting of stigma, style, and ovary with ovules, which receive pollen and produce seeds after fertilization.

Pollination

  • Pollination refers to the transfer of pollen from the anther to the stigma.
  • It can occur through self-pollination (same flower) or cross-pollination (different flowers).

Complete/Incomplete and Perfect/Imperfect Flowers

  • Complete flowers contain all four floral whorls: sepals, petals, stamens, and carpels
  • Incomplete flowers lack one or more of these whorls.
  • Perfect flowers contain both stamens and carpels.
  • Imperfect flowers are either staminate (male) or pistillate (female)

Types of Germination

  • Epigeal germination is a process where the cotyledons are pushed above the ground during germination.
  • Hypogeal germination is a process where the cotyledons remain below the ground during germination.

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10th Grade Biology PPT 2017 PDF

Description

Explore the diverse characteristics of plants, focusing on both flowering and non-flowering varieties. This quiz covers cellular structure, reproduction methods, and examples of various plant groups such as bryophytes, pteridophytes, and gymnosperms.

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