CLASS 7 BIOLOGY : KINGDOM CLASSIFICATION

Plant Kingdoms

• Algae are aquatic, contain chlorophyll, and are autotrophs. Example: Spirogyra
• Bryophyta lack roots, but have stems and leaves. They have root-like structures called rhizoids. Example: Moss
• Pteridophyta have well-formed leaves, stems, and roots. They produce spores, not flowers or seeds. Example: Fern
• Gymnosperms lack flowers and fruits but bear naked seeds. Example: Pine

Fungi Kingdom

• Fungi are eukaryotic, heterotrophic organisms.
• Most are multicellular with thread-like structures called hyphae, forming a network called mycelium.
• Fungi obtain nutrition through saprophytism (decomposing dead matter) or parasitism (living on other organisms).
• The cell wall is composed of chitin.
• Example: Agaricus (Mushroom)

Monocot Plants

• Seeds have a single cotyledon
• Leaves exhibit parallel venation
• Roots are fibrous
• Example: Maize

Dicot Plants

• Seeds have two cotyledons
• Leaves exhibit reticulate venation
• Roots have a tap root system
• Example: Pea

Kingdom Monera

• Includes bacteria, blue-green algae (cyanobacteria), and mycoplasma.
• These organisms are prokaryotic lacking a defined nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.
• Some have cell walls (like bacteria and blue-green algae), but mycoplasma lack cell walls.
• Nutrition modes include autotrophic (blue-green algae and some bacteria) and heterotrophic (mycoplasma and most bacteria).

Bacteria

• Unicellular, prokaryotic organisms without chlorophyll.
• Cell structure includes a cell wall, a proteinaceous capsule, a nucleoid (genetic material), and lack membrane-bound organelles like mitochondria and plastids.
• Bacteria store food as glycogen.

Types based on shape:

• Bacilli: Rod-shaped
• Cocci: Spherical
• Spirilla: Spiral-shaped
• Vibrio: Comma-shaped

Harmful Bacteria

• Cause diseases like typhoid, cholera, pneumonia, and tuberculosis in humans.
• Spoil food items like meat.
• Spoil milk if not boiled and stored correctly.

Useful Bacteria

• Act as decomposers breaking down dead plants and animals.
• Help in digestion by breaking down food and producing vitamins B and K in the human intestine.
• Used in industries for curing cheese, tobacco, and tea.
• Production of vinegar, curd, and fuel (methane from manure).
• Tanning of leather.
• Retting of fibers.
• Manufacture of antibiotics like streptomycin and tetracycline.
• Nitrogen fixation in legume plants.

Kingdom Protista

• Includes unicellular, eukaryotic organisms like algae, diatoms, and protozoans.
• Have a defined nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles.
• Nutrition is either autotrophic (algae and diatoms) or heterotrophic (protozoans).
• Some possess cilia or flagella for movement, while others use pseudopodia.

Amoeba

• Single-celled eukaryotic organism, microscopic and irregular in shape.
• Has a cell membrane, nucleus, pseudopodia for movement and capturing food, and a contractile vacuole for excretion.
• Nutrition: Engulfs food with pseudopodia, digests in food vacuoles, and absorbs nutrients.
• Excretion: Expels undigested food through the cell membrane, and excess water and wastes through the contractile vacuole.
• Respiration: Gas exchange through diffusion across the cell membrane.
• Locomotion: Amoeboid movement using pseudopodia.
• Reproduction: Through binary fission (dividing into two) or multiple fission (dividing into many) under unfavorable conditions.

Kingdom Fungi

• Eukaryotic organisms lacking chlorophyll.
• Range from unicellular (e.g., yeast) to multicellular (Penicillium, Aspergillus, mushrooms).
• Multicellular forms consist of hyphae, forming a mycelium (network of hyphae).
• Heterotrophic in nutrition, obtaining food through saprophytism or parasitism.
• Cell wall composed of chitin, and store food as glycogen.

Yeast

• Single-celled, saprophytic fungus.
• Used in fermentation (beer, wine, bread).
• Reproduces through budding and sometimes sexually.

Bread Mold

• Multicellular fungus with hyphae, forming a mycelium.
• Has rhizoids (downward-growing hyphae) and sporangiophores (upward-growing hyphae bearing sporangia (spore-containing structures).
• Saprophytic, feeding on dead organic matter.
• Respiration is aerobic.

Harmful Fungi

• Damage food products, paper, leather, paint, and textiles.
• Cause diseases in crops, humans, and animals.
• Some mushrooms (toadstools) are poisonous.

Useful Fungi

• Some mushrooms are edible.
• Yeast provides essential amino acids and protein.
• Produce antibiotics like penicillin.
• Citric acid production for soft drinks.
• Used in bread making and fermentation of sugars into alcohol and carbon dioxide (wines and beers).

Two Kingdom Classification

• Linnaeus and other scientists initially classified organisms into two kingdoms: Plantae (plants) and Animalia (animals).
• This system had anomalies like Euglena (with features of both plants and animals) and fungi (possessing cell walls but no chloroplasts).

Five Kingdom Classification

• Proposed by R.H. Whittaker (1969) based on cell structure (prokaryotic/eukaryotic), nutrition (autotrophic/heterotrophic), and body organization (unicellular/multicellular).
• The five kingdoms include:
  • Monera: Prokaryotic organisms like bacteria and blue-green algae.
  • Protista: Unicellular eukaryotes like algae, protozoans, and diatoms.
  • Fungi: Primarily multicellular, non-green heterotrophs (with some unicellular exceptions).
  • Plantae: Multicellular, green autotrophs.
  • Animalia: Multicellular, heterotrophic animals lacking cell walls, typically exhibiting movement.

Advantages of Classification

• Simplifies the study of living organisms.
• Facilitates easy identification of organisms.
• Helps in grouping organisms based on similarities.
• Provides insight into relationships between organisms.
• Helps trace the evolution of organisms from simpler to complex forms.

Fungi

• Saprophytic fungi decompose dead organic material for nourishment.
• They return nutrients to the soil, aiding plant growth.
• Examples include Aspergillus and Penicillium, used in cheese production.

### Kingdom Plantae

• Includes multicellular, eukaryotic, and green autotrophic organisms.
• Classification based on body differentiation, vascular tissues, seeds, and fruit enclosure.

Thallophytes (Green Algae)

• Aquatic, green unicellular or multicellular organisms.
• Contain chlorophyll for photosynthesis.
• Lack differentiated body parts like roots, stems, and leaves.
• Example: Chlamydomonas (unicellular), Spirogyra (filamentous), Laminaria (brown algae), Porphyra (red algae).

Bryophyta

• Green plants found in moist, shady environments.
• Possess stem and leaves, but no true roots.
• Root-like structures called rhizoids absorb water and minerals.
• Examples: Liverworts and Mosses.

Pteridophyta

• Green plants found in cool, shady terrestrial areas.
• Have roots, stems, and leaves.
• Do not produce flowers or seeds.
• Examples: Ferns, Horsetails, and Water fern.

Gymnosperms

• Produce seeds that are not enclosed in fruits.
• Evergreen, meaning they don't shed leaves.
• Examples: Cycas and Pinus.

Angiosperms

• Produce seeds that are enclosed inside fruits.
• Classified into dicotyledons (two seed leaves) and monocotyledons (one seed leaf).
• Dicotyledons include plants like gram, pea, bean, brinjal, and mango.
• Monocotyledons include plants like wheat, maize, and rice.

Kingdom Animalia

• Divided into invertebrates (lacking a backbone) and vertebrates (possessing a backbone).

Invertebrates

• Porifera: Porous animals with pores all over the body. Attached to the sea floor. Examples: Sycon, Leucosolenia
• Coelenterata: Hollow sac-like animals with a single opening (mouth) surrounded by tentacles. Examples: Hydra, Sea Anemone
• Platyhelminthes: Flattened, ribbon-like parasitic worms with unsegmented bodies. Examples: Liver fluke, Tapeworm
• Nematoda: Round worms with narrow cylindrical bodies. Examples: Roundworm, Ascaris
• Annelida: Segmented worms with bodies composed of rings. They have lateral appendages called setae or parapodia for locomotion. Examples: Earthworm, Leech
• Arthropoda: Joint-footed animals with segmented bodies (head, thorax, abdomen). They possess a tough exoskeleton and compound eyes. Examples: Butterfly, Cockroach, Crab, Spider, Scorpion, Prawn
• Mollusca: Soft-bodied animals with a hard, calcium carbonate shell. Examples: Snail, Octopus, Mussel
• Echinodermata: Spiny-skinned animals with star-shaped or ball-like bodies. Examples: Starfish, Sea Urchin, Brittle Star

Vertebrates

• Animals possessing a backbone (vertebral column).
• Pisces: Aquatic, cold-blooded animals with fins for swimming and gills for breathing. Covered in scales. Examples: Shark, Lamprey, Lung fish, Carp
• Amphibia: Can live both on land and in water. Cold-blooded. Have moist skin and lack scales. Breathe through lungs and skin. Examples: Frog, Toad
• Reptiles: Mostly terrestrial, some aquatic. Cold-blooded. Scales cover their bodies. Breathe through lungs. Examples: Lizard, Snake, Crocodile, Tortoise
• Aves (Birds): Feathered animals. Warm-blooded. Have wings for flight. Hollow bones for lightness. Examples: Pigeon, Ostrich, Peacock, Sparrow, Penguin
• Mammals: Hairy, warm-blooded animals. Give birth to live young. Possess mammary glands for nourishing their young. Breathe through lungs. Examples: Kangaroo, Bat, Squirrel, Cat, Dog, Lion, Tiger, Rabbit, Whale, Dolphin, Monkey, Human

Plant Classifications

• Algae: aquatic, photosynthetic, lack roots, stems, and leaves. Example: Spirogyra.
• Bryophyta: have stems and leaves but no roots, have rhizoids instead, need water to reproduce, live in moist environments. Example: Moss.
• Pteridophyta: have well-formed roots, stems, and leaves, reproduce via spores, do not produce flowers or seeds. Example: Fern.
• Gymnosperm: lack flowers and fruits, bear naked seeds not enclosed in a fruit. Example: Pine.

Fungi

• Characteristics: eukaryotic, heterotrophic (saprophytic or parasitic), lack chlorophyll, have cell walls made of chitin, store glycogen as food. Example: Agaricus (Mushroom).
• Structure: multicellular fungi consist of hyphae (thread-like structures) which form a mycelium.
• Reproduction: both sexual and asexual, common methods include spore formation (bread mold), budding (Yeast).

Bacteria

• Characteristics: prokaryotic, unicellular, lack chlorophyll, have cell walls (except for Mycoplasma).
• Structure: have a cell wall surrounded by a capsule, genetic material is called nucleoid, lack membrane-bound organelles like mitochondria and plastids.
• Types: coccus (spherical), bacillus (rod-shaped), spirillum (spiral-shaped), vibrio (comma-shaped).
• Harmful Effects: cause diseases in humans, animals, and plants, spoil food items.
• Useful Bacteria: act as decomposers, help with digestion, used in various industries (cheese, vinegar, fuel production, tanning, retting), used to produce antibiotics, play a role in nitrogen fixation in legumes (Rhizobium).

Protista

• Characteristics: eukaryotic, unicellular, autotrophic (algae, diatoms) or heterotrophic (protozoa). Some have cilia, flagella, or pseudopodia for movement.
• Example: Amoeba
  • Structure: single-celled, eukaryotic, irregular shape, covered by a cell membrane, has a nucleus and pseudopodia.
  • Nutrition: heterotrophic, engulfs food through pseudopodia, uses digestive juices to break down food.
  • Excretion: undigested food expelled through cell membrane, excess water and waste removed by contractile vacuole.
  • Respiration: by diffusion through cell membrane.
  • Locomotion: amoeboid movement using pseudopodia.
  • Reproduction: binary fission (asexual) and multiple fission (asexual).

Kingdoms

• Two Kingdom Classification: divided living organisms into Plantae (plants) and Animalia (animals). This system has limitations due to organisms with mixed characteristics.
• Five Kingdom Classification (R.H. Whittaker 1969): based on cell structure, mode of nutrition, and body organization.
  • Monera: prokaryotic, single-celled, bacteria (including blue-green algae), Mycoplasma.
  • Protista: eukaryotic, single-celled, diverse organisms like algae, protozoa, diatoms.
  • Fungi: eukaryotic, heterotrophic, multicellular (except yeast), lack chlorophyll.
  • Plantae: eukaryotic, multicellular, autotrophic, have chlorophyll.
  • Animalia: eukaryotic, multicellular, heterotrophic, usually exhibit movement, lack cellulose.

Advantages of Classification

• Simplifies the study of living organisms.
• Facilitates easy identification of different organisms.
• Helps group organisms with similar characteristics.
• Reveals relationships between different organisms.
• Helps trace the evolution of organisms from simpler to complex forms.

Kingdom Fungi

• Saprophytic fungi break down dead material and return nutrients to the soil, essential for plant growth.
• Fungi contribute to nutrient recycling in ecosystems.
• Some fungi, like Aspergillus and Penicillium, are used to add flavor to cheese.

Kingdom Plantae

• Includes multicellular, eukaryotic, green, autotrophic organisms.
• Classified based on:
  • Differentiation of plant body: Presence or absence of distinct parts like root, stem, and leaves.
  • Presence of vascular tissues: Specialized tissues for water and nutrient transport.
  • Presence of seeds: Structures containing the embryo and food reserve.
  • Enclosed seeds: Whether seeds are protected within a fruit.
• Includes aquatic thallophytes (algae) and terrestrial plants (bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms, and angiosperms).

Green Algae (Thallophytes)

• Aquatic, green-colored, unicellular or multicellular.
• Possess chlorophyll for photosynthesis.
• Lack differentiated root, stem, and leaves, exhibiting a thallus body form.
• Examples: Chlamydomonas, Spirogyra, Laminaria, Porphyra.

Bryophyta

• Green plants found in moist, shady places.
• Have stem and leaves, but lack roots.
• Possess root-like structures called rhizoids for water absorption and anchorage.
• Examples: Liverworts and mosses.

Pteridophyta

• Green plants found in cool, shady places.
• Possess root, stem, and leaves.
• Lack flowers and seeds.
• Examples: Ferns, horsetails, and water ferns.

Gymnosperms

• Bear seeds not enclosed in fruits (naked seeds).
• Evergreen, do not shed leaves seasonally.
• Examples: Cycas and Pinus.

Angiosperms

• Bear seeds enclosed within fruits.
• Found as herbs, shrubs, and trees.
• Classified into:
  • Dicotyledonous plants: Seeds contain two seed leaves (cotyledons). Examples: gram, pea, bean, brinjal, and mango.
  • Monocotyledonous plants: Seeds contain one seed leaf. Examples: wheat, maize, and rice.

Kingdom Animalia

• Divided into two major groups: invertebrates and vertebrates.

Invertebrates

• Animals without a backbone or bony skeleton.

• Includes:

  • Porifera: Porous animals, attached to seabeds, lack movement. Examples: Sycon, Leucosolenia.
  • Coelenterata: Hollow sac-like animals with a single opening (mouth) surrounded by tentacles. Examples: Hydra, sea anemone.
  • Platyhelminthes: Mostly parasitic flatworms with unsegmented bodies. Examples: Liver fluke, tapeworm.
  • Nematoda: Parasitic or free-living roundworms with unsegmented bodies. Examples: Roundworm, Ascaris.
  • Annelida: Segmented worms with soft bodies composed of rings, locomotion through setae or parapodia. Examples: Earthworm, Leech.
  • Arthropoda: Joint-footed animals with segmented bodies (head, thorax, abdomen), tough exoskeleton, compound eyes. Examples: Butterfly, crab, cockroach, spider, scorpion, prawn.
  • Mollusca: Soft-bodied animals with unsegmented bodies, enclosed in a hard calcium carbonate shell. Examples: Mussel, snail, octopus, cuttlefish.
  • Echinodermata: Spiny-skinned animals with star-shaped or ball-like bodies, radially symmetrical, marine. Examples: Starfish, sea urchin, brittle star.

Vertebrates

• Animals possessing a backbone (vertebral column).

• Divided into five groups:

  • Pisces: Aquatic, cold-blooded, streamlined bodies with fins for swimming, breathe through gills, covered in scales. Examples: Shark, lamprey, lungfish, carp.
  • Amphibia: Live both on land and in water, cold-blooded, slimy skin lacking scales, lay eggs in water, breathe through lungs and moist skin. Examples: Frog, toad.
  • Reptiles: Mostly found on land, cold-blooded, covered in scales, breathe through lungs. Examples: Tortoise, lizard, snake, crocodile.
  • Aves: Birds, covered in feathers, warm-blooded, possess wings for flight, streamlined body, hollow bones for lightweight. Examples: Pigeon, ostrich, peacock, sparrow, penguin.
  • Mammals: Hairy, warm-blooded, give birth to live young, possess mammary glands for nourishing young, breathe through lungs. Examples: Kangaroo, bat, squirrel, cat, dog, lion, tiger, rabbit, camel, giraffe, whale, dolphin, monkey, human.

Classification

• The process of grouping organisms based on similarities and differences.

Prokaryotic Organisms

• Primitive organisms lacking a nuclear membrane and membrane-bound organelles.
• Genetic material is not enclosed within a nucleus.
• Binary fission is the common mode of reproduction.

Eukaryotic Organisms

• Possess a true nucleus with a membrane surrounding the genetic material.
• Contain membrane-bound organelles.

Fermentation

• Anaerobic breakdown of sugars by yeast, leading to the production of alcohol.

Important Concepts

• Streamlined body: A body shape that is narrow at the front and back, offering minimal resistance during swimming.
• Cold-blooded: Animals that cannot regulate their internal body temperature.
• Warm-blooded: Animals that can maintain a constant internal body temperature.

Plant Kingdom Classification

• Algae are aquatic, photosynthetic organisms with chlorophyll. They lack roots, stems, and leaves. Example: Spirogyra
• Bryophyta are non-vascular plants with leaves and stems but lack roots. They possess rhizoids for anchorage. Example: Moss
• Pteridophyta are vascular plants with well-developed roots, stems and leaves. They reproduce by spores. Example: Fern
• Gymnosperm are non-flowering plants with naked seeds not enclosed within a fruit. Example: Pine

Fungi Kingdom

• Fungi are heterotrophic organisms, mostly multicellular, that lack chlorophyll.
• Their body is made up of thread-like structures called hyphae, forming a network called mycelium.
• They can be saprophytic (feeding on dead organic matter) or parasitic (feeding on living organisms).
• Fungi have a cell wall made of chitin and store glycogen as their food reserve.
• Example: Mushrooms, yeasts, molds

Bacteria Kingdom

• Bacteria are prokaryotic, unicellular organisms lacking a defined nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.
• They can be either autotrophic or heterotrophic.
• Cell walls are present in most species except Mycoplasma.
• Bacteria play a crucial role in decomposition, digestion, and various industrial processes.
• They can be harmful, causing diseases like typhoid, cholera, or food spoilage.
• Beneficial bacteria are used in food production (curd, cheese), fermentation, antibiotics production (penicillin), and nitrogen fixation.
• Based on shape, bacteria are classified as cocci (spherical), bacilli (rod-shaped), spirilla (spiral), and vibrio (comma-shaped).

Protista Kingdom

• This kingdom comprises single-celled eukaryotic organisms.
• They can be autotrophic (algae, diatoms) or heterotrophic (protozoa).
• Some protists move using cilia, flagella, or pseudopodia.

Amoeba

• A type of protozoan, amoeba is a single-celled organism with a well-defined nucleus, lacking a defined shape.
• It moves using pseudopodia, which also helps it capture food (bacteria, algae).
• Amoeba reproduces asexually through binary fission or multiple fission.

Five Kingdom Classification

• This system, proposed by R.H. Whittaker, classifies organisms based on:
  • Cell structure (prokaryotic or eukaryotic)
  • Mode of nutrition (autotrophic or heterotrophic)
  • Body organization (unicellular or multicellular)
• The five kingdoms are:
  • Monera
  • Protista
  • Fungi
  • Plantae
  • Animalia

The Need for Classification

• Makes the study of living organisms simpler and easier.
• Facilitates the identification of different organisms.
• Helps in grouping organisms based on similarities.
• Shows relationships and affinities between different organisms.
• Helps in tracing the evolution of organisms from simple to complex forms.

Saprophytic Fungi

• Break down dead material for food
• Return nutrients to the soil
• Help recycle nutrients
• Examples: Aspergillus and Penicillium used to add flavor to cheese

Kingdom Plantae

• Includes all multi-cellular, eukaryotic, and green autotrophic organisms
• Key characteristics for classification:
  • Differentiation of the plant body (root, stem, leaf)
  • Presence of vascular tissues
  • Presence of seeds
  • Encapsulation of seeds within fruits

Green Algae (Thallophytes)

• Aquatic, green-colored, unicellular, or multi-cellular plants
• Contain chlorophyll and make their own food (autotrophic)
• Plant body is not divided into root, stem, and leaves, called a thallus
• Examples: Chlamydomonas (unicellular), Spirogyra (filamentous), Laminaria (brown algae), Porphyra (red algae)

Bryophyta

• Green plants found in moist, shady places
• Have stems and leaves but lack roots
• Have root-like structures called rhizoids for absorbing water and minerals, and anchoring the plant
• Examples: Liverworts and mosses

Pteridophyta

• Green plants generally found in cool, shady places
• Have roots, stems, and leaves
• Do not produce flowers or seeds
• Examples: Ferns, horsetails, and water ferns

Gymnosperms

• Bear seeds that are not enclosed in fruits, known as naked seeds
• Typically evergreen, meaning they do not shed their leaves
• Examples: Cycas and Pinus

Angiosperms

• Bear seeds that are enclosed within fruits
• Found as herbs, shrubs, and trees
• Further classified based on the number of seed leaves (cotyledons):
  • Dicotyledonous plants: Seeds contain two seed leaves (e.g., gram, pea, bean, brinjal, mango)
  • Monocotyledonous plants: Seeds contain one seed leaf (e.g., wheat, maize, rice)

Kingdom Animalia

• Includes all multicellular, eukaryotic, heterotrophic organisms
• Two main groups: invertebrates and vertebrates

Invertebrates

• Animals without a backbone or bony skeleton
• Examples: Sponges, sea anemones, tapeworms, cockroaches, earthworms, snails, starfish, etc.
• Insects are the largest group of invertebrates

Vertebrates

• Animals with a backbone (vertebral column)
• Backbone is formed by a series of small bones called vertebrae
• Examples: Fish, frogs, toads, snakes, lizards, birds, monkeys, cows, cats, kangaroos, elephants, humans, etc.

Porifera (Sponges)

• Porous animals (pores cover the body with a large central opening)
• Found attached to the seafloor and do not move
• Examples: Sycon, Leucosolenia

Coelenterata (Hollow Sac-like Animals)

• Body is a hollow sac with a single opening (mouth) at the top
• Mouth is surrounded by tentacles
• Examples: Hydra, sea anemones

Platyhelminthes (Flatworms)

• Mostly parasitic
• Flattened, leaf-like, or ribbon-like body
• Unsegmented
• Examples: Liver fluke, tapeworm

Nematoda (Roundworms)

• Parasitic or free-living
• Narrow, cylindrical body
• Unsegmented
• Examples: Roundworm, Ascaris

Annelida (Segmented Worms)

• Soft, segmented body composed of rings
• Locomotion using lateral appendages (setae or parapodia)
• Respiration through the moist body surface
• Excretion using nephridia
• Examples: Earthworm, leech

Arthropoda (Joint-footed Animals)

• Jointed legs
• Body segmented into three regions (head, thorax, abdomen)
• Tough outer covering called exoskeleton
• Compound eyes with multiple lenses, producing mosaic vision
• Examples: Butterfly, crab, cockroach, spider, scorpion, prawn, crab

Mollusca (Soft-bodied Animals)

• Soft, unsegmented body
• Enclosed in a hard calcium carbonate shell (exoskeleton)
• Locomotion using a muscular foot
• Examples: Mussel, snail, octopus, cuttlefish

Echinodermata (Spiny-skinned Animals)

• Rough, spiny body
• Star-shaped or ball-like, radially symmetrical
• Marine animals
• Examples: Starfish, sea urchin, brittle star

Pisces (Fishes)

• Found in marine and freshwater
• Cold-blooded animals
• Streamlined body with fins for swimming
• Breathe through gills
• Body covered in scales
• Examples: Shark, lamprey, lungfish, carp

Amphibia (Animals Leading Two Lives)

• Live in water and on land
• Cold-blooded animals
• Slimy body without scales
• Lay eggs in water
• Breathe through lungs and moist skin
• Examples: Frog, toad

Reptilia

• Primarily land-dwelling, some aquatic
• Cold-blooded animals
• Body covered in scales
• Breathe through lungs
• Examples: Tortoise, lizard, snake, crocodile

Aves (Birds)

• Bodies covered in feathers
• Warm-blooded animals
• Possess wings for flying
• Streamlined body for flight
• Hollow bones for lightweight
• Examples: Pigeon, ostrich, peacock, sparrow, penguin

Mammals

• Body covered in hair
• Warm-blooded animals
• Give birth to live young
• Possess mammary glands for nourishing young
• Breathe through lungs
• Examples: Kangaroo, bat, squirrel, cat, dog, lion, tiger, rabbit, camel, giraffe, whale, dolphin, monkey, human

Plant Kingdom Classification

• Algae: Do not have roots, stems, or leaves; are aquatic and autotrophic (produce their own food)
  • Example: Spirogyra
• Bryophyta: Have stems and leaves but no roots; have root-like structures called rhizoids; are called the "amphibians of the plant kingdom" because they need water to reproduce.
  • Example: Mosses
• Pteridophyta: Have well-formed roots, stems, and leaves; reproduce through spores not seeds.
  • Example: Ferns
• Gymnosperms: Have roots, stems, and leaves; do not produce flowers or fruits; bear naked seeds not enclosed in fruits.
  • Example: Pines

### Fungi

• General characteristics:
  • Non-green (lack chlorophyll)
  • Eukaryotic (have a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles)
  • Multicellular (except for yeast), composed of thread-like structures called hyphae that form a network called mycelium
  • Heterotrophic (cannot produce their own food) and obtain nutrition through saprophytism (feeding on dead organic matter) or parasitism (feeding on living organisms)
• Examples: Mushrooms, molds (like Penicillium and Aspergillus), yeast

### Bacteria

• General characteristics:
  • Prokaryotic (lack a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles)
  • Unicellular
  • Can be autotrophic (produce their own food) or heterotrophic
• Shapes:
  • Coccus: Spherical or ovoid
  • Bacillus: Rod-shaped
  • Spirillum: Spiral-shaped
  • Vibrio: Comma-shaped

### Harmful Bacteria

• Cause several diseases in humans, animals, and plants
  • Typhoid: Caused by Salmonella typhi
  • Cholera: Caused by Vibrio cholerae
  • Pneumonia: Caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae
  • Tuberculosis: Caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis
• Spoil food items
  • Examples: Botulism, Salmonella contamination
• Can cause milk spoilage

Useful Bacteria

• Act as decomposers
  • Break down dead organic matter into simpler substances which are then returned to the soil, water, or air for use by other living organisms.
• Assist in animal digestion
  • Break down food in the intestines of animals
  • Produce essential vitamins like B and K in humans
• Industrial applications
  • Curing of cheese, tobacco, and tea
  • Vinegar production
  • Curd (dahi) production
  • Fuel production (methane from cattle manure)
  • Leather tanning
  • Fibre retting
  • Antibiotic production (like streptomycin and tetracycline)
  • Nitrogen fixation (by Rhizobium bacteria in legume root nodules)

Kingdom Protista

• General characteristics:
  • Unicellular
  • Eukaryotic
  • Can be autotrophic (algae, diatoms) or heterotrophic (protozoa)
• Examples: Algae, diatoms, protozoa

Amoeba

• Structure:
  • Unicellular
  • Eukaryotic
  • Microscopic
  • Irregular shape
  • Covered by a cell membrane
  • Has pseudopodia (false feet) for movement and capturing food
• Life processes:
  • Nutrition: Eats bacteria, small algae, and other small organisms by engulfing them with pseudopodia, forming a food vacuole where digestion occurs.
  • Excretion: Waste products are expelled through the general body surface, excess water is collected in the contractile vacuole and expelled through the cell membrane.
  • Respiration: Exchange of gases (oxygen in, carbon dioxide out) occurs through the cell membrane.
  • Locomotion: Occurs through amoeboid movement, which is the flow of cytoplasm within the pseudopodia.
  • Reproduction: Occurs through binary fission (asexual) and multiple fission (asexual, during unfavorable conditions).

Kingdom Fungi

• Nutrition:
  • Heterotrophic
  • Acquire nutrition through saprophytism (from dead organic matter) or parasitism (from living organisms)
• Reproduction:
  • Asexual reproduction through binary fission, budding, regeneration of fragments, or spore formation.
  • Sexual reproduction is also possible.
• Examples:
  • Yeast:
    • Single-celled
    • Saprophytic
    • Reproduces by budding
    • Used in food production (bread, beer, wine)
  • Bread mold:
    • Multicellular
    • Saprophytic
    • Reproduces by spore formation
    • Hyphae secrete digestive juices that break down starch in bread into glucose
• Harmful Fungi:
  • Cause food spoilage
  • Damage materials (paper, leather, textiles)
  • Cause diseases in crops, humans, and animals.
• Useful Fungi:
  • Some mushrooms are edible
  • Yeast is a source of food
  • Produce antibiotics (like penicillin)
  • Used in citric acid production
  • Used in baking
  • Used in food fermentation (wine, beer)

Two Kingdom Classification

• Linnaeus and other scientists divided living organisms into two kingdoms:
  • Kingdom Plantae (plants)
  • Kingdom Animalia (animals)

Five Kingdom Classification

• Proposed by R.H. Whittaker in 1969
• Based on cell structure (prokaryotic vs eukaryotic), mode of nutrition (autotrophic vs heterotrophic), and body organisation (unicellular vs multicellular)
• Five kingdoms:
  • Monera
  • Protista
  • Fungi
  • Plantae
  • Animalia

Kingdom Monera

• Includes bacteria, blue-green algae (cyanobacteria), and Mycoplasma
• Prokaryotic (lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles)
• Some have cell walls (bacteria, blue-green algae)
• Mycoplasma lack a cell wall
• Mode of nutrition: Autotrophic (blue-green algae, some bacteria) or heterotrophic (mycoplasma, most bacteria)

Advantages of Classification

• Makes the study of living organisms easier and simpler.
• Helps in identifying different organisms.
• Organises organisms into groups.
• Reveals relationships between organisms.
• Aids in tracing the evolution of organisms from simpler to more complex forms.

Fungi

• Fungi recycle nutrients in the ecosystem by breaking down dead materials.
• Some types of fungi, like Aspergillus and Penicillium, are used to give cheese its distinct flavor.

Kingdom Plantae

• Includes all multicellular, eukaryotic, and green autotrophic organisms.
• Its classification is based on: plant body differentiation, presence of vascular tissues, seed presence, and seed enclosure within fruits.

Green Algae (Thallophytes)

• Aquatic, green-colored, unicellular or multicellular plants.
• They contain chlorophyll and are autotrophic (produce their own food).
• Their plant body is not differentiated into root, stem, and leaves.
• Examples include Chlamydomonas, Spirogyra, Laminaria, and Porphyra.

Bryophyta

• Green plants found in moist, shady places.
• Have stem and leaves but lack roots.
• Root-like structures called rhizoids help absorb water and minerals and anchor the plant.
• Examples include liverworts and mosses.

Pteridophyta

• Green plants found in cool, shady land areas.
• Possess roots, stem, and leaves.
• Do not produce flowers or seeds.
• Examples include ferns, horsetails, and water ferns.

Gymnosperms

• Bear seeds that are not enclosed in fruits, referred to as naked seeds.
• Evergreen plants that do not shed their leaves.
• Examples include Cycas and Pinus.

Angiosperms

• Bear seeds enclosed inside fruits.
• Found as herbs, shrubs, and trees.
• Classified into dicotyledonous (two seed leaves) and monocotyledonous (one seed leaf) plants.
• Cotyledons are food-storing structures in seeds that nourish the plant embryo.

Kingdom Animalia

• Includes all animals that can be divided into invertebrates (lack a backbone) and vertebrates (possess a backbone).

Invertebrates

• Porifera (porous animals):
  • Have pores all over their bodies.
  • Found attached to the seafloor.
  • Examples include Sycon and Leucosolenia.
• Coelenterata (hollow sac-like animals):
  • Bag-shaped with a single opening called a mouth at the top.
  • Mouth is surrounded by tentacles.
  • Examples include Hydra and sea anemone.
• Platyhelminthes (flatworms):
  • Mostly parasitic.
  • Thin, flattened, leaf-like or ribbon-like bodies.
  • Unsegmented bodies.
  • Examples include liver fluke and tapeworm.
• Nematoda (roundworms):
  • Parasitic or free-living.
  • Narrow, cylindrical, unsegmented bodies.
  • Examples include roundworm and Ascaris.
• Annelida (segmented worms):
  • Soft, segmented bodies.
  • Locomotion through setae or parapodia.
  • Respiration through moist body surface.
  • Possess nephridia for excretion.
  • Examples include earthworm and leech.
• Arthropoda (joint-footed animals):
  • Jointed legs.
  • Body is segmented into head, thorax, and abdomen.
  • Tough exoskeleton.
  • Compound eyes with mosaic vision.
  • Examples include butterfly, crab, cockroach, spider, scorpion, and prawn.
• Mollusca (soft-bodied animals):
  • Soft, unsegmented bodies.
  • Enclosed by a hard shell (exoskeleton) made of calcium carbonate.
  • Locomotion by muscular foot.
  • Examples include mussel, snail, octopus, and cuttlefish.
• Echinodermata (spiny-skinned animals):
  • Rough, spiny bodies.
  • Star-shaped or ball-like bodies.
  • Radially symmetrical.
  • Marine animals.
  • Examples include starfish, sea urchin, and brittle star.

Vertebrates

• Pisces (fish):
  • Found in both marine and freshwater environments.
  • Cold-blooded animals.
  • Streamlined bodies with fins for swimming.
  • Breathe through gills.
  • Covered in scales.
  • Examples include shark, lamprey, lungfish, and carp.
• Amphibia (animals leading two lives):
  • Can live on land and in water.
  • Cold-blooded animals.
  • Slimy bodies lacking scales.
  • Lay eggs in water.
  • Breathe through lungs and moist skin.
  • Examples include frogs and toads.
• Reptiles:
  • Mostly found on land, some are aquatic.
  • Cold-blooded animals.
  • Bodies covered in scales.
  • Breathe through lungs.
  • Examples include tortoises, lizards, snakes, and crocodiles.
• Aves (birds):
  • Bodies covered in feathers.
  • Warm-blooded animals.
  • Possess wings for flying.
  • Streamlined bodies.
  • Hollow bones for weight reduction.
  • Examples include pigeon, ostrich, peacock, sparrow, and penguin.
• Mammals:
  • Bodies covered in hair.
  • Warm-blooded animals.
  • Give birth to live young.
  • Possess mammary glands for nourishing their young.
  • Breathe through lungs.
  • Examples include kangaroo, bat, squirrel, cat, dog, lion, tiger, rabbit, camel, giraffe, whale, dolphin, monkey, and human.

Additional Terms

• Streamlined Body: A body that is narrow at the front and back, offering minimal resistance while swimming.
• Binary Fission: The most common method of reproduction in prokaryotic cells, where a cell divides into two identical daughter cells.
• Fermentation: Anaerobic breakdown of sugars by yeast, producing alcohol.

Test your knowledge on the different plant and fungi kingdoms! This quiz covers characteristics of algae, bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms, and various plant classifications like monocots and dicots. Understand their structures, functions, and examples to ace this quiz.