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Questions and Answers
Which type of hormone can diffuse through the membrane of target cells due to being nonpolar?
Which type of hormone can diffuse through the membrane of target cells due to being nonpolar?
What is a common characteristic of lipophobic messengers?
What is a common characteristic of lipophobic messengers?
Which type of receptor is NOT found on the membrane of target cells for lipophobic messengers?
Which type of receptor is NOT found on the membrane of target cells for lipophobic messengers?
Why can't lipophilic hormones be made and stored ahead of time within the cell?
Why can't lipophilic hormones be made and stored ahead of time within the cell?
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Which of the following is an example of a lipophobic messenger?
Which of the following is an example of a lipophobic messenger?
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What role do small activators and inhibitors play in enzyme regulation?
What role do small activators and inhibitors play in enzyme regulation?
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Which type of bond is primarily involved in allosteric regulation of enzymes?
Which type of bond is primarily involved in allosteric regulation of enzymes?
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What is the primary function of epithelial tissue?
What is the primary function of epithelial tissue?
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How does covalent modification of enzymes affect their activity?
How does covalent modification of enzymes affect their activity?
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Which statement best describes connective tissue?
Which statement best describes connective tissue?
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What is the hierarchical structure of the body starting from the simplest level?
What is the hierarchical structure of the body starting from the simplest level?
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Which type of gland is responsible for secreting hormones into the bloodstream?
Which type of gland is responsible for secreting hormones into the bloodstream?
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In what way do enzymes contribute to speeding up reactions?
In what way do enzymes contribute to speeding up reactions?
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What triggers the release of cortisol in the body?
What triggers the release of cortisol in the body?
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Which hormones are responsible for regulating testosterone production?
Which hormones are responsible for regulating testosterone production?
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What is a key function of the seminiferous tubules in the male reproductive system?
What is a key function of the seminiferous tubules in the male reproductive system?
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How many chromosomes do sperm and eggs each contain?
How many chromosomes do sperm and eggs each contain?
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What is the role of cortisol during stress?
What is the role of cortisol during stress?
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In which part of the male reproductive system does sperm maturation occur?
In which part of the male reproductive system does sperm maturation occur?
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What can long-term stress result in with respect to the HPA axis?
What can long-term stress result in with respect to the HPA axis?
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What is the consequence of stereotype threat on cognitive performance?
What is the consequence of stereotype threat on cognitive performance?
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What is the equilibrium potential for K+ in millivolts?
What is the equilibrium potential for K+ in millivolts?
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What is the primary reason for the resting membrane potential to be around -70 mV?
What is the primary reason for the resting membrane potential to be around -70 mV?
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What triggers the opening of voltage-gated ion channels during an action potential?
What triggers the opening of voltage-gated ion channels during an action potential?
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What happens to Na+ channels during the action potential phase?
What happens to Na+ channels during the action potential phase?
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What is hyperpolarization in the context of neuronal activity?
What is hyperpolarization in the context of neuronal activity?
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What is the role of the Na+/K+ pump in maintaining the negative membrane potential?
What is the role of the Na+/K+ pump in maintaining the negative membrane potential?
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Why can action potentials travel long distances without decreasing in strength?
Why can action potentials travel long distances without decreasing in strength?
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Which of the following correctly describes the nature of action potentials?
Which of the following correctly describes the nature of action potentials?
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What is the primary function of the SA node in the heart?
What is the primary function of the SA node in the heart?
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Which type of valve is located between the atria and the ventricles?
Which type of valve is located between the atria and the ventricles?
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What structure allows direct and rapid spread of ions between cardiac muscle cells?
What structure allows direct and rapid spread of ions between cardiac muscle cells?
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Why do veins have one-way valves?
Why do veins have one-way valves?
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Which of the following correctly describes the sequence of blood flow through the heart chambers?
Which of the following correctly describes the sequence of blood flow through the heart chambers?
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How do action potentials in pacemaker cells differ from those in neurons?
How do action potentials in pacemaker cells differ from those in neurons?
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Under which condition do the AV valves open?
Under which condition do the AV valves open?
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What role do desmosomes play in cardiac muscle cells?
What role do desmosomes play in cardiac muscle cells?
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What effect does bronchoconstriction have on airflow in the respiratory system?
What effect does bronchoconstriction have on airflow in the respiratory system?
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During gas exchange in the lungs, what is the direction of oxygen diffusion?
During gas exchange in the lungs, what is the direction of oxygen diffusion?
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Which of the following conditions would shift the hemoglobin saturation curve to the right?
Which of the following conditions would shift the hemoglobin saturation curve to the right?
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What percentage of oxygen is typically unloaded to tissues at rest?
What percentage of oxygen is typically unloaded to tissues at rest?
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What is the primary mechanism by which CO2 is transported in the blood?
What is the primary mechanism by which CO2 is transported in the blood?
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What does the term 'partial pressure' refer to in the context of gases?
What does the term 'partial pressure' refer to in the context of gases?
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What occurs during bronchodilation?
What occurs during bronchodilation?
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Which factor does NOT influence hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen?
Which factor does NOT influence hemoglobin's affinity for oxygen?
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Study Notes
Human Physiology Study Notes
- Human physiology studies how the human body functions, with multiple organ systems working together.
- Parts of the body connected to the external environment are called the external environment.
- Materials from the external environment enter the internal environment via epithelial cells and blood vessels to be carried throughout the body.
- Blood vessels transport materials and remove waste.
- The human body comprises intracellular fluid (inside cells, roughly half the body's water content) and extracellular fluid (outside of cells, in the internal environment, including plasma and interstitial fluid).
- Homeostasis is maintaining a stable internal environment. Negative feedback mechanisms regulate this, like temperature control—a sensor measures the temperature, comparing it to a set point in an integrating center. Effectors bring about a response (shivering, etc.).
- Positive feedback amplifies a stimulus. Examples include ovulation and blood clotting.
- Chemical elements/molecules called atoms are held together by covalent bonds.
- Covalent bonds can be nonpolar (electrons shared equally) or polar (unequal electron sharing between atoms). Polar bonds are common between oxygen and nitrogen and hydrogen and carbon.
- Polar molecules or those with many polar bonds are hydrophilic, interacting well with water.
- Nonpolar molecules or those with many nonpolar bonds are hydrophobic, interacting better with fats.
- Biomolecules (carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids) perform crucial functions in cells—carbohydrates provide energy, lipids store energy and aid in cell structure/function, proteins are structural and functional molecules, and nucleic acids (DNA/RNA) store genetic information.
- Enzymes are protein catalysts, speeding up reactions by lowering the activation energy. They are not used up in reactions.
- Enzymes can be regulated allosterically by molecules which bind to sites other than the active site, or covalently (like adding a phosphate group).
- There are four basic tissue types in the body: epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissue. Each tissue type has different roles and structures in the body.
- Glands (exocrine and endocrine) release materials to do specific jobs.
- The circulatory system transports molecules and cells in the blood throughout the body, with a two-loop system.
- The heart pumps blood through arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, and veins.
- The heart has four chambers (2 atria and 2 ventricles).
- The heart has valves between the atria and ventricles and ventricles and arteries, to prevent backflow.
- The heart's conduction system involves pacemaker cells in the heart (SA and AV nodes) which generate electrical signals to initiate and regulate the heartbeat.
- Action potentials in pacemaker and contractile cells of the heart are different in that they are regulated differently.
- The respiratory system exchanges gases—bringing in oxygen, removing carbon dioxide. The respiratory system uses tubes (trachea, bronchi, bronchioles), and air sacs (alveoli).
- The rate of gas exchange is regulated by partial pressures (O2 and CO2).
- There are peripheral and central chemoreceptors; they measure blood gas levels and pH, initiating changes in breathing rate as needed.
- The autonomic nervous system consists of sympathetic and parasympathetic branches, which regulate essential functions, including heart rate and blood pressure. The autonomic nervous system has a critical role to play in maintaining homeostasis.
- The autonomic nervous system includes the sympathetic nervous system for "fight or flight" responses, and the parasympathetic for "rest and digest" functions.
- The two branches of nervous systems include the peripheral nervous system (PNS) which collects sensory info from nerves throughout the body (afferent division) and the central nervous system which processes this information (efferent division).
- The central nervous system is contained in the skull and spine and includes the brain and spinal cord.
- The somatosensory system incorporates sensory receptors for touch, temperature, pain, and proprioception (body position), gathering data and sending it to the brain for processing.
- The nervous system communicates across synapses at chemical synapses with neurotransmitters.
- The kidneys filter blood by regulating water balance and osmolarity, using a series of processes for filtration, reabsorption, and secretion.
- Hormones regulate various cellular processes and help maintain homeostasis through glands. There are three main types: peptide, steroid, and amine hormones.
- Hormones are important for cell-to-cell communication via chemical messengers.
- The reproductive system is responsible for producing gametes and maintaining fertilization across the reproductive cycle.
- Muscle tissue, whether skeletal, smooth, or cardiac, has the ability to contract.
- Skeletal muscles contract using motor units and neurotransmitters (acetylcholine).
- Metabolism is the process of converting food into usable energy and storing excess nutrients like glycogen and fat.
- The body regulates blood glucose levels after meals through the release of insulin by the pancreas and glycogen as needed.
- During periods of fasting, the body utilizes glycogen and fats for energy.
- Exercise physiology involves the physiological adaptations to physical exertion.
- Glucose, fats, and proteins are used to provide energy during exercise through various pathways including glucose breakdown to pyruvate, ATP production, and anaerobic and aerobic respiration.
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Test your knowledge on the role of hormones and enzymes in physiology with this quiz. Explore concepts like lipophobic and lipophilic messengers, enzyme regulation, and the hierarchical structure of the body. Perfect for students studying human physiology or related fields.