Podcast
Questions and Answers
What primarily distinguishes white matter from grey matter in the brain?
What primarily distinguishes white matter from grey matter in the brain?
Which lobe of the brain is primarily responsible for processing visual information?
Which lobe of the brain is primarily responsible for processing visual information?
What neurotransmitter is often associated with abnormal levels in depression?
What neurotransmitter is often associated with abnormal levels in depression?
Which type of muscle is classified as involuntary and found in the walls of organs?
Which type of muscle is classified as involuntary and found in the walls of organs?
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What does long-term potentiation specifically enhance in the brain?
What does long-term potentiation specifically enhance in the brain?
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What type of data does an electroencephalogram (EEG) primarily record?
What type of data does an electroencephalogram (EEG) primarily record?
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How does synaptic plasticity contribute to learning and memory?
How does synaptic plasticity contribute to learning and memory?
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What primary function does the primary motor cortex serve?
What primary function does the primary motor cortex serve?
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What is a characteristic of steroid hormones compared to peptide/amine hormones?
What is a characteristic of steroid hormones compared to peptide/amine hormones?
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Which hormone is produced by neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus?
Which hormone is produced by neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus?
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What role do tropic hormones play in the endocrine system?
What role do tropic hormones play in the endocrine system?
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What primarily distinguishes direct hormones from tropic hormones?
What primarily distinguishes direct hormones from tropic hormones?
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What is an example of a function regulated by the anterior pituitary?
What is an example of a function regulated by the anterior pituitary?
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How do epinephrine and norepinephrine primarily affect the body?
How do epinephrine and norepinephrine primarily affect the body?
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What describes the primary function of the posterior pituitary?
What describes the primary function of the posterior pituitary?
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What is the role of releasing factor hormones produced by the hypothalamus?
What is the role of releasing factor hormones produced by the hypothalamus?
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What is the primary role of amylase in digestion?
What is the primary role of amylase in digestion?
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Which component of the digestive system is primarily responsible for chemical digestion?
Which component of the digestive system is primarily responsible for chemical digestion?
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What occurs during the process of peristalsis?
What occurs during the process of peristalsis?
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Which vitamin is NOT part of the B complex group mentioned?
Which vitamin is NOT part of the B complex group mentioned?
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What is the primary function of saliva in digestion?
What is the primary function of saliva in digestion?
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Which substance activates pepsinogen into pepsin in the stomach?
Which substance activates pepsinogen into pepsin in the stomach?
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The hindgut primarily consists of which part of the digestive system?
The hindgut primarily consists of which part of the digestive system?
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What does the term 'absorption' refer to in the context of digestion?
What does the term 'absorption' refer to in the context of digestion?
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What is the primary function of osmoregulation in organisms?
What is the primary function of osmoregulation in organisms?
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Which term describes the mechanism through which water moves across a selectively permeable membrane?
Which term describes the mechanism through which water moves across a selectively permeable membrane?
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Which structure is primarily responsible for the filtration of blood in the kidneys?
Which structure is primarily responsible for the filtration of blood in the kidneys?
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Which nitrogenous waste is considered energetically costly to produce?
Which nitrogenous waste is considered energetically costly to produce?
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What role does the loop of Henle play in kidney function?
What role does the loop of Henle play in kidney function?
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How does antidiuretic hormone (vasopressin) affect the kidneys?
How does antidiuretic hormone (vasopressin) affect the kidneys?
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Which part of the nephron is primarily responsible for the reabsorption of filtrate based on homeostasis needs?
Which part of the nephron is primarily responsible for the reabsorption of filtrate based on homeostasis needs?
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What is the function of aquaporins in cellular membranes?
What is the function of aquaporins in cellular membranes?
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What role does the presynaptic terminal play in neuron communication?
What role does the presynaptic terminal play in neuron communication?
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What is the primary difference between EPSP and IPSP?
What is the primary difference between EPSP and IPSP?
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What is a defining characteristic of temporal summation?
What is a defining characteristic of temporal summation?
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Which of the following is a function of the myelin sheath?
Which of the following is a function of the myelin sheath?
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Which neuron type carries impulses toward the CNS?
Which neuron type carries impulses toward the CNS?
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What characterizes somatic responses?
What characterizes somatic responses?
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What is the primary neurotransmitter involved in muscle movement?
What is the primary neurotransmitter involved in muscle movement?
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Which statement best describes reciprocal inhibition?
Which statement best describes reciprocal inhibition?
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What is the primary function of bile in the digestive process?
What is the primary function of bile in the digestive process?
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Which digestive hormone is secreted by the duodenum to stimulate the gallbladder?
Which digestive hormone is secreted by the duodenum to stimulate the gallbladder?
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What is the role of the hepatic portal vein?
What is the role of the hepatic portal vein?
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Which structure is lined with villi to enhance nutrient absorption?
Which structure is lined with villi to enhance nutrient absorption?
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What is the primary function of the pancreas in digestion?
What is the primary function of the pancreas in digestion?
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Which structure connects the pancreas to the duodenum?
Which structure connects the pancreas to the duodenum?
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What function does the large intestine primarily serve?
What function does the large intestine primarily serve?
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What role do microvilli play in the small intestine?
What role do microvilli play in the small intestine?
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Study Notes
Friday, November 8th
- Physiology: The study of functions of living things. Closely related to anatomy (study of structure and function). Focuses on underlying mechanisms of body processes.
- Tissue Types:
- Epithelial: Exchanges materials between cells and environment.
- Connective: Connects, supports, and anchors body parts.
- Muscle: Skeletal, cardiac, and smooth.
- Nervous: Initiates and transmits electrical impulses.
- Levels of Organization:
- Chemical: Atoms and molecules make up the body.
- Cellular: Basic unit of life; specialized functions.
- Tissue: Groups of similar cells.
- Organ: Groups of different tissues.
- Body System: Collection of organs with related functions.
- Organism: Body systems forming a functional whole body.
Monday, November 11th
- Homeostasis: Maintaining stable internal conditions within a multicellular organism, necessary for cell function without direct external contact.
- Homeostasis Mechanisms:
- Negative feedback: Opposes initial change. Widely used to maintain homeostasis.
- Positive feedback: Enhances/amplifies change, less common than negative feedback.
Monday, November 11th
- Nervous System (I):
- Nerves vs. Neurons: Neurons are the basic units; nerves are bundles of neurons transmitting nerve impulses.
- Cephalization: Concentration of sensory organs and nervous system components at the front of the body (evolved independently).
- PNS (Peripheral Nervous System): Contains the sensory neurons, transmits info to the CNS (central nervous system). Controls the action components.
- CNS (Central Nervous System): Contains the brain and spinal cord, controls the brain process. Sensory neuron activates sensory input from the environment.
Wednesday, November 13th
- Signal transduction pathways: Series of interactions triggered by signaling molecule binding to receptors.
- Myelin sheath: Insulating layer around nerves, important for fast signal transmission.
- EPSPs/IPSPs: Excitatory/Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials, which can lead to temporal or spatial summation to create an action potential.
- Afferent/Efferent neurons:
- Afferent: Sensory neurons send impulses toward the CNS.
- Efferent: Motor neurons carry impulses away from the CNS.
- Somatic and Autonomic responses:
- Somatic: Voluntary movements, sense organs.
- Autonomic: Involuntary, regulate internal body function (parasympathetic and sympathetic).
Wednesday, November 13th
- Motor endplate: Where a nerve terminal and muscle tissue connect. Special structure that allows muscles to contract when activated by sensory signals from the nervous system.
- Acetylcholine: Important neurotransmitter involved in memory, learning, and involuntary muscle movement.
Monday, November 18th
- Sensory Receptors (II): Types of receptors for different stimuli. Includes:
- Mechanoreceptors: Respond to mechanical force (touch, pressure, stretch).
- Photoreceptors: Respond to light.
- Thermoreceptors: Respond to changes in temperature.
- Chemoreceptors: Respond to chemicals (taste, smell).
- Nociceptors: Respond to painful stimuli.
- Electroreceptors: Detect electrical fields.
Monday, November 18th
- G-protein-coupled receptors: A group of proteins in the cell membrane that receive signals from outside the cell and transmit them inside.
Monday, November 20th
- Vestibular system (semicircular canals, etc.): Semicircular canals, otoliths, Vestibulocochlear Nerve and the cochlea.
- Hair cells and stereocilia: Located within the ear, convert mechanical stimulus into nervous impulses.
- Rods vs cones: Light receptors in the retina - Rods (low light), Cones (color).
- Phototransduction cascade: Sequence of events that converts light energy into a neural signal.
Wednesday, November 20th & 22nd
- Forebrain: Composed of the cerebral cortex, thalamus, and hypothalamus.
- Midbrain: Part of the brain stem.
Monday, November 25th & 27th
- Muscles: Striated vs. Smooth:
- Striated: Voluntary or Involuntary muscles, contain myofibrils (bundles of protein filaments).
- Smooth: Involuntary muscle in the visceral organs.
- Myofibrils: Composed of thick and thin filaments.
- Sliding filament model: Explanation for how muscles contract by sliding filaments.
- Skeletal vs cardiac muscles:
- Skeletal: Voluntary movement, composed of muscle fibers.
- Cardiac: Involuntary movement in the heart, contain intercalated discs and one nucleus.
Wednesday, November 27th
- Endocrine system: Hormonal system regulates various bodily functions. Includes peptide hormones, amine hormones, and steroid hormones.
- Intracrine, endocrine, paracrine, autocrine, and exocrine: Different methods of hormone action.
- Hypothalamus: A central part of the endocrine system, regulates various functions.
- Pituitary gland: Regulated by the hypothalamus, regulates various endocrine functions.
- Neurosecretory cells: Cells producing hormones that are released into the bloodstream.
- Tropic hormones: Hormones that stimulate other endocrine glands. Include follicle stimulating, luteinizing, adrenocorticotropic, and thyroid stimulating hormones.
- Direct hormones: Directly affect tissues. Include prolactin, endorphins, and growth hormone.
Monday, December 2nd
- Respiration: Includes steps of bulk flow and diffusion.
Wednesday, December 4th
- Circulation: Includes systemic and pulmonary circuits (heart's function, blood vessel types).
Wednesday, December 4th
- Arteries: Carry oxygenated blood away from the heart, high pressure.
- Arterioles: Small branches of arteries, regulate blood flow.
- Veins: Carry deoxygenated blood towards the heart, lower pressure.
Monday, December 9th
- Osmoregulation: Maintaining water balance in organisms.
- Osmoreceptors: Detect water content in the body.
- Osmoregulation mechanisms: Includes osmosis, osmotic pressure, excretion of ammonia, urea or uric acid.
Wednesday, December 11th
- Kidney structure and function:
- Glomerulus: Filters blood.
- Bowman's capsule: Collects filtrate.
- Renal cortex and medulla: Sections with nephrons.
- Nephron: Functional unit of the kidney, composed of proximal and distal tubules, loops of Henle, and collecting ducts.
- Blood vessels: Renal arteries and veins carry blood to and from kidneys.
Thursday, December 12th
- Renal system and ureters: Ureters are ducts that carry urine from kidneys to the bladder.
- Urea recycling - A process in kidneys that involves the reabsorption and secretion of urea several times.
- Antidiuretic hormone (vasopressin): Secreted in response to changes in plasma osmolality or blood volume, regulates water reabsorption in the kidney, to maintain water balance.
- Aquaporins: Water channels that facilitate the movement of water across cell membranes, are important in water reabsorption in the kidney.
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