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Questions and Answers

What primarily distinguishes white matter from grey matter in the brain?

  • White matter processes sensory information, unlike grey matter.
  • White matter consists of myelinated axons, while grey matter is made up of neuronal cell bodies. (correct)
  • White matter has a darker appearance compared to grey matter.
  • White matter contains more synapses than grey matter.

Which lobe of the brain is primarily responsible for processing visual information?

  • Temporal lobe
  • Occipital lobe (correct)
  • Frontal lobe
  • Parietal lobe

What neurotransmitter is often associated with abnormal levels in depression?

  • GABA
  • Acetylcholine
  • Norepinephrine
  • Dopamine (correct)

Which type of muscle is classified as involuntary and found in the walls of organs?

<p>Smooth muscle (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does long-term potentiation specifically enhance in the brain?

<p>The strength of signals received by a neuron. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of data does an electroencephalogram (EEG) primarily record?

<p>Postsynaptic activity in cortical neurons (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does synaptic plasticity contribute to learning and memory?

<p>It strengthens the connection between neural cells. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What primary function does the primary motor cortex serve?

<p>Overseeing basic skeletal muscle movement. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of steroid hormones compared to peptide/amine hormones?

<p>They alter gene expression and protein production. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which hormone is produced by neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus?

<p>Vasopressin (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do tropic hormones play in the endocrine system?

<p>They stimulate other endocrine glands. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What primarily distinguishes direct hormones from tropic hormones?

<p>Direct hormones act directly on target tissues. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of a function regulated by the anterior pituitary?

<p>Hormone secretion by gonads (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do epinephrine and norepinephrine primarily affect the body?

<p>They prepare the body for fight or flight responses. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What describes the primary function of the posterior pituitary?

<p>Controls water and salt balance. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of releasing factor hormones produced by the hypothalamus?

<p>To activate other hormones in the anterior pituitary. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of amylase in digestion?

<p>Digests carbohydrates (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which component of the digestive system is primarily responsible for chemical digestion?

<p>Stomach (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What occurs during the process of peristalsis?

<p>Food is moved down the GI tract (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which vitamin is NOT part of the B complex group mentioned?

<p>Vitamin K (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of saliva in digestion?

<p>To moisten food for easier swallowing (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which substance activates pepsinogen into pepsin in the stomach?

<p>Hydrochloric acid (HCl) (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The hindgut primarily consists of which part of the digestive system?

<p>Large intestine (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'absorption' refer to in the context of digestion?

<p>The uptake of nutrients from food into the bloodstream (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of osmoregulation in organisms?

<p>To maintain homeostasis in water content (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which term describes the mechanism through which water moves across a selectively permeable membrane?

<p>Osmosis (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which structure is primarily responsible for the filtration of blood in the kidneys?

<p>Glomerulus (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which nitrogenous waste is considered energetically costly to produce?

<p>Urea (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does the loop of Henle play in kidney function?

<p>Reabsorption of water and hypertonicity of the medulla (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does antidiuretic hormone (vasopressin) affect the kidneys?

<p>Increases water reabsorption in the collecting duct (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the nephron is primarily responsible for the reabsorption of filtrate based on homeostasis needs?

<p>Proximal tubule (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of aquaporins in cellular membranes?

<p>Enhance osmosis by allowing water movement (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does the presynaptic terminal play in neuron communication?

<p>It converts the electrical signal into a chemical signal. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary difference between EPSP and IPSP?

<p>EPSP results in depolarization while IPSP hyperpolarizes the membrane. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a defining characteristic of temporal summation?

<p>Rapid succession of EPSPs at a single synapse. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a function of the myelin sheath?

<p>To increase the speed of nerve impulse transmission. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which neuron type carries impulses toward the CNS?

<p>Afferent neurons. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes somatic responses?

<p>They involve voluntary movements that are consciously controlled. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary neurotransmitter involved in muscle movement?

<p>Acetylcholine. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes reciprocal inhibition?

<p>It inhibits the motor neuron pool of the antagonist when the agonist is activated. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of bile in the digestive process?

<p>To help digest fats (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which digestive hormone is secreted by the duodenum to stimulate the gallbladder?

<p>Cholecystokinin (CCK) (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the hepatic portal vein?

<p>To carry blood from the small intestine to the liver (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which structure is lined with villi to enhance nutrient absorption?

<p>Duodenum (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the pancreas in digestion?

<p>To secrete digestive enzymes into the duodenum (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which structure connects the pancreas to the duodenum?

<p>Pancreatic duct (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What function does the large intestine primarily serve?

<p>Absorbing water and salt (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do microvilli play in the small intestine?

<p>They increase surface area for nutrient absorption (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Synapse (synaptic cleft)

The small gap between the axon terminal of a presynaptic neuron and the membrane of a postsynaptic cell. It's where the electrical signal is changed into a chemical signal, ensuring communication between neurons.

Pre & Postsynaptic Membrane

The presynaptic terminal is where the electrical signal becomes a chemical signal by releasing neurotransmitters. The postsynaptic terminal receives the chemical signal with specialized receptors.

Signal Transduction Pathway

A series of molecular interactions triggered by the binding of a signaling molecule to its receptor, leading to activation of various intracellular pathways. It's responsible for relaying information within the cell.

Myelin Sheath

An insulating layer that surrounds nerves, including those in the brain and spinal cord. It helps speed up the transmission of nerve impulses.

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EPSP & IPSP

EPSPs increase the likelihood of an action potential in the postsynaptic neuron by bringing the membrane potential closer to the threshold. IPSPs decrease the likelihood by moving the membrane potential further from the threshold.

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Temporal vs Spatial Summation

Temporal summation occurs when multiple EPSPs arrive quickly at a single synapse, causing the postsynaptic neuron to reach the threshold and fire. Spatial summation involves EPSPs at two or more different synapses converging on a postsynaptic neuron to trigger an action potential.

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Afferent vs. Efferent Neurons

Afferent neurons carry sensory information from the body to the CNS. Efferent neurons carry motor commands from the CNS to muscles and glands.

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Motor Endplate

A specialized area on a muscle fiber where a nerve terminal and muscle tissue meet. It's the point of communication between motor neurons and muscles for muscle contraction.

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Grey Matter

The outermost layer of the brain, rich in neurons, responsible for higher-level functions like thinking, language, and memory.

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Frontal Lobe

The part of the brain responsible for planning, decision-making, and controlling voluntary movements.

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Parietal Lobe

The area of the brain that processes sensory information from the body, contributing to spatial awareness and body position.

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Occipital Lobe

The part of the brain that receives and interprets visual information.

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Temporal Lobe

The area of the brain responsible for processing auditory information, language comprehension, and memory.

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Mechanical Digestion

Physical mixing and churning that breaks down large food masses into smaller ones.

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Chemical Digestion

Using enzymes to break down large molecules (polymers) into smaller ones (monomers).

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Absorption

The process of taking in nutrients and chemicals from food into the body.

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Expulsion

The process of allowing broken down food to exit the body.

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Foregut

The part of the digestive system that contains the mouth, esophagus, and stomach.

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Midgut

The part of the digestive system that contains the small intestine.

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Hindgut

The part of the digestive system that contains the large intestine.

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Peristalsis

The rhythmic muscular contractions and relaxations that move food downwards through the digestive tract.

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Hydrophobic Hormones

Hormones that cannot dissolve in water and therefore require transport proteins to travel in the bloodstream. They can easily pass through cell membranes and bind to intracellular receptors.

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Peptide/Amine Hormones

These hormones are water-soluble and readily dissolve in the bloodstream. They cannot easily pass through cell membranes and instead bind to receptors on the cell surface, triggering signal transduction pathways.

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Steroid Hormones

A class of hormones derived from cholesterol, including corticosteroids and sex steroids. They freely cross cell membranes and bind to intracellular receptors, influencing gene expression.

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Hypothalamus

A part of the brain that acts as a bridge between the nervous and endocrine systems, controlling many vital functions. It also produces releasing hormones that regulate the pituitary gland.

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Anterior Pituitary

The anterior lobe of the pituitary gland responsible for secreting hormones that control other endocrine glands, such as the thyroid, adrenal cortex, and gonads.

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Posterior Pituitary

The posterior lobe of the pituitary gland responsible for releasing hormones that regulate water and salt balance, such as vasopressin (ADH).

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Neurosecretory Cells

Specialized neurons that produce hormones and release them into the bloodstream, acting as messengers for various target tissues.

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Releasing Hormones

Peptide hormones produced by the hypothalamus that regulate the release of other hormones from the pituitary.

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Duodenum

The first part of the small intestine, connected to the stomach, where fats stimulate the release of CCK, a hormone that triggers bile release from the gallbladder.

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Cholecystokinin (CCK)

A hormone secreted by the duodenum that stimulates the gallbladder to contract and release bile, aiding in fat digestion.

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Bile

A fluid produced by the liver and stored in the gallbladder. It contains bile salts that help break down fats.

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Gallbladder

An organ that stores bile produced by the liver and releases it into the duodenum when needed for fat digestion.

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Secretin

A digestive hormone secreted by the duodenum that regulates gastric acid secretion and pH levels in the duodenum, ensuring optimal digestion.

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Pancreas

The primary digestive organ that secretes enzymes and bicarbonate, essential for digesting proteins, carbohydrates, and fats.

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Small Intestine

The main digestive organ where most nutrients are absorbed into the bloodstream.

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Villi

Tiny finger-like projections that line the small intestine, increasing surface area for nutrient absorption.

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Osmosis

The movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane from an area of lower solute concentration to an area of higher solute concentration.

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Osmotic Pressure

The pressure needed to prevent the movement of water across a selectively permeable membrane.

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Osmoregulation

The process by which organisms regulate the osmotic pressure of their body fluids to maintain homeostasis.

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Glomerulus

The main filtering unit of the kidney.

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Bowman's Capsule

A cup-like structure that surrounds the glomerulus in the nephron, collecting the filtered fluid.

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Podocyte

Specialized cells in the Bowman's capsule that wrap around the capillaries of the glomerulus, aiding in filtration.

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Proximal Tubule

A section of the nephron responsible for reabsorbing essential nutrients and water back into the bloodstream.

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Distal Convoluted Tubule

A section of the nephron that regulates the balance of water, electrolytes, and hydrogen ions in the body.

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Study Notes

Friday, November 8th

  • Physiology: The study of functions of living things. Closely related to anatomy (study of structure and function). Focuses on underlying mechanisms of body processes.
  • Tissue Types:
  • Epithelial: Exchanges materials between cells and environment.
  • Connective: Connects, supports, and anchors body parts.
  • Muscle: Skeletal, cardiac, and smooth.
  • Nervous: Initiates and transmits electrical impulses.
  • Levels of Organization:
  • Chemical: Atoms and molecules make up the body.
  • Cellular: Basic unit of life; specialized functions.
  • Tissue: Groups of similar cells.
  • Organ: Groups of different tissues.
  • Body System: Collection of organs with related functions.
  • Organism: Body systems forming a functional whole body.

Monday, November 11th

  • Homeostasis: Maintaining stable internal conditions within a multicellular organism, necessary for cell function without direct external contact.
  • Homeostasis Mechanisms:
  • Negative feedback: Opposes initial change. Widely used to maintain homeostasis.
  • Positive feedback: Enhances/amplifies change, less common than negative feedback.

Monday, November 11th

  • Nervous System (I):
  • Nerves vs. Neurons: Neurons are the basic units; nerves are bundles of neurons transmitting nerve impulses.
  • Cephalization: Concentration of sensory organs and nervous system components at the front of the body (evolved independently).
  • PNS (Peripheral Nervous System): Contains the sensory neurons, transmits info to the CNS (central nervous system). Controls the action components.
  • CNS (Central Nervous System): Contains the brain and spinal cord, controls the brain process. Sensory neuron activates sensory input from the environment.

Wednesday, November 13th

  • Signal transduction pathways: Series of interactions triggered by signaling molecule binding to receptors.
  • Myelin sheath: Insulating layer around nerves, important for fast signal transmission.
  • EPSPs/IPSPs: Excitatory/Inhibitory postsynaptic potentials, which can lead to temporal or spatial summation to create an action potential.
  • Afferent/Efferent neurons:
  • Afferent: Sensory neurons send impulses toward the CNS.
  • Efferent: Motor neurons carry impulses away from the CNS.
  • Somatic and Autonomic responses:
  • Somatic: Voluntary movements, sense organs.
  • Autonomic: Involuntary, regulate internal body function (parasympathetic and sympathetic).

Wednesday, November 13th

  • Motor endplate: Where a nerve terminal and muscle tissue connect. Special structure that allows muscles to contract when activated by sensory signals from the nervous system.
  • Acetylcholine: Important neurotransmitter involved in memory, learning, and involuntary muscle movement.

Monday, November 18th

  • Sensory Receptors (II): Types of receptors for different stimuli. Includes:
  • Mechanoreceptors: Respond to mechanical force (touch, pressure, stretch).
  • Photoreceptors: Respond to light.
  • Thermoreceptors: Respond to changes in temperature.
  • Chemoreceptors: Respond to chemicals (taste, smell).
  • Nociceptors: Respond to painful stimuli.
  • Electroreceptors: Detect electrical fields.

Monday, November 18th

  • G-protein-coupled receptors: A group of proteins in the cell membrane that receive signals from outside the cell and transmit them inside.

Monday, November 20th

  • Vestibular system (semicircular canals, etc.): Semicircular canals, otoliths, Vestibulocochlear Nerve and the cochlea.
  • Hair cells and stereocilia: Located within the ear, convert mechanical stimulus into nervous impulses.
  • Rods vs cones: Light receptors in the retina - Rods (low light), Cones (color).
  • Phototransduction cascade: Sequence of events that converts light energy into a neural signal.

Wednesday, November 20th & 22nd

  • Forebrain: Composed of the cerebral cortex, thalamus, and hypothalamus.
  • Midbrain: Part of the brain stem.

Monday, November 25th & 27th

  • Muscles: Striated vs. Smooth:
  • Striated: Voluntary or Involuntary muscles, contain myofibrils (bundles of protein filaments).
  • Smooth: Involuntary muscle in the visceral organs.
  • Myofibrils: Composed of thick and thin filaments.
  • Sliding filament model: Explanation for how muscles contract by sliding filaments.
  • Skeletal vs cardiac muscles:
  • Skeletal: Voluntary movement, composed of muscle fibers.
  • Cardiac: Involuntary movement in the heart, contain intercalated discs and one nucleus.

Wednesday, November 27th

  • Endocrine system: Hormonal system regulates various bodily functions. Includes peptide hormones, amine hormones, and steroid hormones.
  • Intracrine, endocrine, paracrine, autocrine, and exocrine: Different methods of hormone action.
  • Hypothalamus: A central part of the endocrine system, regulates various functions.
  • Pituitary gland: Regulated by the hypothalamus, regulates various endocrine functions.
  • Neurosecretory cells: Cells producing hormones that are released into the bloodstream.
  • Tropic hormones: Hormones that stimulate other endocrine glands. Include follicle stimulating, luteinizing, adrenocorticotropic, and thyroid stimulating hormones.
  • Direct hormones: Directly affect tissues. Include prolactin, endorphins, and growth hormone.

Monday, December 2nd

  • Respiration: Includes steps of bulk flow and diffusion.

Wednesday, December 4th

  • Circulation: Includes systemic and pulmonary circuits (heart's function, blood vessel types).

Wednesday, December 4th

  • Arteries: Carry oxygenated blood away from the heart, high pressure.
  • Arterioles: Small branches of arteries, regulate blood flow.
  • Veins: Carry deoxygenated blood towards the heart, lower pressure.

Monday, December 9th

  • Osmoregulation: Maintaining water balance in organisms.
  • Osmoreceptors: Detect water content in the body.
  • Osmoregulation mechanisms: Includes osmosis, osmotic pressure, excretion of ammonia, urea or uric acid.

Wednesday, December 11th

  • Kidney structure and function:
  • Glomerulus: Filters blood.
  • Bowman's capsule: Collects filtrate.
  • Renal cortex and medulla: Sections with nephrons.
  • Nephron: Functional unit of the kidney, composed of proximal and distal tubules, loops of Henle, and collecting ducts.
  • Blood vessels: Renal arteries and veins carry blood to and from kidneys.

Thursday, December 12th

  • Renal system and ureters: Ureters are ducts that carry urine from kidneys to the bladder.
  • Urea recycling - A process in kidneys that involves the reabsorption and secretion of urea several times.
  • Antidiuretic hormone (vasopressin): Secreted in response to changes in plasma osmolality or blood volume, regulates water reabsorption in the kidney, to maintain water balance.
  • Aquaporins: Water channels that facilitate the movement of water across cell membranes, are important in water reabsorption in the kidney.

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