Physiological Psychology Chapter 1
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Questions and Answers

What is epigenetics?

Study of how behaviors and environment can cause changes that affect the way genes work.

Which genes are located on the sex chromosomes?

  • Autosomal Genes
  • Sex-linked Genes (correct)
  • Sex-limited Genes
  • Dominant Genes

    • Homozygous refers to a person having an identical pair of genes on two chromosomes.

    True

    Phenylketonuria (PKU) is an inherited disorder that increases the level of ________ in the blood.

    <p>phenylalanine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the parts of a neuron with their descriptions:

    <p>Dendrites = Receive messages from other neurons Soma = Cell body responsible for maintaining the life of the cell Axon = Long tube-like structure that carries messages to other cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which gland is responsible for motivational behavior such as sleep, hunger, thirst, and sex?

    <p>Hypothalamus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The medulla is responsible for life-sustaining functions like breathing and heart rate.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What part of the brain is responsible for the formation of long-term memories?

    <p>Hippocampus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    ____ is the brain structure responsible for fear responses and memory of fear.

    <p>Amygdala</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the lobes of the brain with their functions:

    <p>Occipital lobe = Visual centers of the brain Parietal lobes = Centers for touch, taste, and temperature sensations Temporal lobes = Sense of hearing and meaningful speech Frontal lobes = Higher mental processes and decision making</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Phantom limb pain is pain that seems to come from the missing body part. It is also known as __________.

    <p>Phantom Limb Sensation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Neuroplasticity is the brain's ability to __________ and rewire throughout life, essential for learning and recovery from injuries.

    <p>Change</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Sensitive periods for plastic changes are only present during early childhood.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term used to describe the brain's ability to adopt new functions or switch neurotransmitters in response to stimuli?

    <p>Functional Adaptation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following terms with their descriptions:

    <p>Critical Period = Sensitive period during child development where specific stimuli are crucial for plasticity Neuroplasticity = Brain's capacity to change and rewire throughout an individual's life Phantom Limb Sensation = Perception of pain in a missing body part</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of glial cells in the nervous system?

    <p>provide support for neurons to grow on and around, deliver nutrients to neurons, produce myelin to coat axons, clean up waste products, and dead neurons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of myelin in the nervous system?

    <p>To insulate and protect neurons</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Neurons can only fire completely or not at all. True or False?

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The _______ nervous system is the division of the PNS that carries information from the senses to the CNS and from the CNS to voluntary muscles of the body.

    <p>somatic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the hormones with their respective glands:

    <p>Oxytocin and growth hormone = Pituitary gland Insulin and glucagon = Pancreas Estrogen and progesterone = Ovaries Testosterone = Testes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is apoptosis?

    <p>Apoptosis is a form of cell death that is normal in development and enables the cell to die without affecting adjacent neurons.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Neurons, axons, and dendrites compete for resources to survive and grow new connections.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do neurotrophins do?

    <p>Promote survival in neurons that reach the target</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Neuroplasticity allows our brains to grow, adapt, and change throughout life by forming ______________ between the brain.

    <p>new connections</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following special senses with their sense organs:

    <p>Smell = Nose Taste = Mouth and Tongue Hearing = Inner Ear Vision = Eye Touch = Skin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of dopamine agonists in Parkinson's treatment?

    <p>Mimic dopamine effects on the brain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the disease characterized by abnormal movements, cognitive problems, and psychiatric symptoms caused by a mutation in the HTT gene?

    <p>Huntington's Disease</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Parkinson's disease primarily affects neurons in various parts of the nervous system.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Mitochondria, essential for energy production and cellular function, become _______ in Parkinson's Disease.

    <p>impaired</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Parkinson's Disease result from?

    <p>too many negative signals in the basal ganglia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does Huntington's Disease result from?

    <p>too many positive signals in the basal ganglia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the treatment involving the placement of thin metal wires in the brain to send electrical signals?

    <p>Deep Brain Stimulation (DBS)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Huntington's Disease is characterized by tremors.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The primary vital cortex is responsible for ____________.

    <p>motor functions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is myopia?

    <p>Myopia is a condition where close objects appear blurry, while distant objects are seen clearly.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are the symptoms of hyperopia?

    <p>Symptoms of hyperopia include blurred vision of close objects, eyestrain, and headaches.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is presbyopia?

    <p>A normal loss of near vision that occurs with aging</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Conjunctivitis is commonly referred to as 'pinkeye'.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the common term for inflammation of the conjunctiva? 'Pin__e'

    <p>Pinkeye</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following types of reflexes with their descriptions:

    <p>Rooting = Newborn's tendency to turn toward touch on the cheek Grasping = Newborn's tendency to close fist around objects Stepping = Newborn's tendency to make stepping motions when held upright Moro = Startle reflex when startled by sudden movement or noise Sucking = Newborn's tendency to suck on objects placed in their mouth</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of fast-twitch muscle fibers?

    <p>Fast-twitch muscle fibers have fast contractions and rapid fatigue, suitable for activities like sprinting or lifting weights.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Foundations of Physiological Psychology

    • Biological explanation of behavior involves understanding how physiology affects behavior
    • Physiological explanation: how physiology functions and affects behavior
    • Ontogenetic explanation: how behavior develops over time
    • Evolutionary explanation: how behavior evolved
    • Functional explanation: why behavior evolved as it did

    Genetics of Behavior

    • Mendelian genetics: genes come in pairs and are aligned along chromosomes
    • DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid): a double-stranded chemical containing genetic information
    • RNA (ribonucleic acid): a single-stranded chemical that can serve as a model for protein synthesis
    • Homozygous: having an identical pair of genes on two chromosomes
    • Heterozygous: having an unmatched pair of genes on two chromosomes
    • Dominant and recessive genes: dominant genes show a strong effect, while recessive genes show their effect only in the homozygous condition
    • Sex-limited, sex-linked, and autosomal genes: genes that are present in both sexes but active mainly in one sex, located on sex chromosomes, or located on non-sex chromosomes

    Epigenetics

    • Epigenetics: the study of how DNA interacts with molecules to activate or deactivate genes
    • Epigenetic changes: chemical tags on DNA or associated proteins that can inhibit or boost gene expression
    • Epigenetic changes can persist throughout life and are influenced by factors like diet, environment, and social experiences

    The Effects of Heredity and Environment

    • Heredity and environment both influence behavior
    • Heritability: the measure of how well differences in people's genes account for differences in their traits
    • Monozygotic (MZ) and dizygotic (DZ) twins: identical twins conceived from a single egg and fraternal twins conceived from two eggs
    • Environmental modification: the environment can affect morphological and physiological development, which in turn affects behavior

    The Evolution of Behavior

    • The biological purpose of life is to procreate
    • Evolution and behavior: how behavior helps us survive and procreate
    • Survival of the fittest: survival of the best adapted to procreate
    • Cycle: behavior > helps procreation > genes passed on > biology that helps behavior is also passed on > offspring shows same behavior

    Neuroscience: The Biological Perspective

    • Nervous system: an extensive network of specialized cells that carry information to and from all parts of the body
    • Neurons: basic cells that make up the nervous system and receive and send messages
    • Parts of a neuron: dendrites, soma, and axon
    • Glial cells: provide support for neurons, deliver nutrients, and clean up waste products
    • Myelin: a fatty substance that insulates, protects, and speeds up neural impulses

    Generating the Message: Neural Impulse

    • Ions: charged particles that create an electrical charge within the neuron
    • Resting potential: the state of the neuron when not firing a neural impulse
    • Action potential: the release of the neural impulse consisting of a reversal of the electrical charge
    • All-or-none: a neuron either fires completely or does not fire at all

    Neuron Communication

    • Synapse: the gap between the axon terminal of one neuron and the dendrites of the next neuron
    • Neurotransmitters: chemical substances that have an effect on the next cell
    • Receptor sites: holes in the surface of the dendrites that fit specific neurotransmitters
    • Agonists and antagonists: chemicals that mimic or block the effects of neurotransmitters

    The Central Nervous System

    • Central nervous system (CNS): consists of the brain and spinal cord
    • Spinal cord: a long bundle of neurons that carries messages to and from the body to the brain
    • Reflex arc: the path of a neural impulse through the sensory neuron, interneuron, and motor neuron

    The Autonomic Nervous System

    • Autonomic nervous system (ANS): consists of nerves that control involuntary muscles, organs, and glands
    • Sympathetic division: part of the ANS that reacts to stressful events and bodily arousal
    • Parasympathetic division: part of the ANS that restores the body to normal functioning after arousal

    Peripheral Nervous System

    • Peripheral nervous system (PNS): consists of all nerves and neurons outside the brain and spinal cord

    • Somatic nervous system: division of the PNS that carries information from the senses to the CNS and from the CNS to the voluntary muscles

    • Autonomic nervous system: division of the PNS that controls involuntary muscles, organs, and glands### Neurology and the Endocrine System

    • The pancreas produces insulin and glucagon, regulating blood glucose levels.

    • The brain, housed within the skull, controls all bodily functions and never sleeps.

    • The brain consists of three main parts: the cerebrum, cerebellum, and brain stem.

    • The cerebrum, the largest part, is divided into right and left hemispheres, each with four lobes (frontal, parietal, occipital, temporal) that have distinct functions.

    The Endocrine System

    • The endocrine system, composed of glands that secrete hormones, plays a crucial role in regulating bodily functions.
    • Major glands include the hypothalamus, pituitary, pineal, thyroid, parathyroid, thymus, adrenal, pancreas, and gonads.
    • These glands release hormones directly into the bloodstream, affecting target cells throughout the body.

    The Nervous System

    • The nervous system is classified into the Central Nervous System (CNS), comprising the brain and spinal cord, and the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS), a network of nerves connecting the body to the CNS.
    • The spinal cord links the brain to the PNS and extends from the medulla oblongata to the lumbar region.
    • The PNS includes 43 pairs of nerves: 12 cranial and 31 spinal.

    Neurons

    • Neurons, the basic units of the nervous system, transmit electrical signals.
    • Each neuron has dendrites (input devices), a soma or cell body (contains the nucleus), and an axon (output device for transmitting signals).
    • Sensory neurons (afferent) send signals to the brain, and motor neurons (efferent) send responses from the brain to the body.

    Clinical Studies

    • Deep lesioning involves inserting a thin, insulated wire into the brain to destroy brain cells at the tip of the wire.
    • Electrical stimulation of the brain (ESB) involves sending a milder electrical current to cause neurons to react as if they had received a message.
    • Electroencephalograph (EEG) records brain wave patterns produced by electrical activity of the surface of the brain.
    • Computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) are brain-imaging methods used to produce detailed images of the brain.

    Functional MRI (fMRI)

    • fMRI makes a "movie" of changes in brain activity using images from different time periods.
    • Positron emission tomography (PET) is a brain-imaging method that uses a radioactive sugar to compile a color-coded image of brain activity.

    Structures of the Brain

    • The medulla oblongata is the lowest part of the brain, responsible for life-sustaining functions such as breathing, swallowing, and heart rate.
    • The pons connects the top of the brain to the bottom and plays a part in sleep, dreaming, left-right body coordination, and arousal.
    • The reticular formation (RF) is an area of neurons responsible for selective attention.
    • The cerebellum controls and coordinates involuntary, rapid, fine motor movement.
    • The cortex is the outermost covering of the brain, consisting of densely packed neurons, responsible for higher thought processes and interpretation of sensory input.

    Cerebral Hemispheres

    • The cerebral hemispheres are the two sections of the cortex on the left and right sides of the brain.
    • The corpus callosum is a thick band of neurons that connects the right and left cerebral hemispheres.

    Four Lobes of the Brain

    • The occipital lobe is responsible for processing visual information.
    • The parietal lobe is responsible for processing touch, taste, and temperature sensations.
    • The temporal lobe is responsible for the sense of hearing and meaningful speech.
    • The frontal lobe is responsible for higher mental processes and decision-making, as well as the production of fluent speech.

    Association Areas of Cortex

    • Association areas are areas within each lobe of the cortex responsible for the coordination and interpretation of information, as well as higher mental processing.

    Split Brain Research

    • Split brain research involves studying patients with severed corpus callosum.
    • The left side of the brain seems to control language, writing, logical thought, analysis, and mathematical abilities.
    • The right side of the brain controls emotional expression, spatial perception, recognition of faces, patterns, and melodies.

    Neuroplasticity

    • Neuroplasticity is the brain's ability to change and rewire throughout life, essential for learning and recovery from injuries.
    • The brain dynamically reorganizes to match its inputs.
    • The brain distributes resources based on relevance.
    • The brain uses the available tissue to reorganize.
    • There is a sensitive period for plastic changes.
    • Hardwiring vs. world experience affects plasticity.
    • The mechanisms of reorganization involve changing the input channels.### Neuroplasticity and Brain Function
    • Neuroplasticity is the brain's ability to adapt and change throughout life.
    • It is a continuous, activity-dependent process that supports learning, adaptation, and recovery.

    The Role of Relevance and Gating

    • The brain distributes resources based on relevance.
    • Neurons can adopt new functions or switch neurotransmitters in response to stimuli, allowing for plasticity.
    • Gating is a control mechanism that turns plasticity on and off in specific places and times.

    Sensitive Periods and Brain Development

    • Sensitive periods are windows of time when the brain is most receptive to new information and experiences.
    • Children's brains exhibit more pronounced plasticity, making skill acquisition easier, but they are also more vulnerable to lasting effects from trauma.
    • After sensitive periods pass, plasticity is still possible, but not as easily.

    Brain Reorganization and Recovery

    • Cortical reorganization can occur over time to allow for recovery of function after brain damage.
    • The language problems of aphasia tend to decline as the right hemisphere takes over.
    • Young brains show widespread plasticity without needing attentional focus.

    Mechanisms of Reorganization

    • Neurons compete for limited space and resources.
    • Pruning is the process of removing neurons and processes that are not needed.
    • Apoptosis is a form of cell death that is normal in development and enables the cell to differentiate.

    Changing Input Channels

    • The brain can learn to interpret input from different sources, such as a retinal implant.
    • The BrainPort enables different sensations to be delivered tactilely to the tongue.

    The Five Senses

    • Sight: light enters the eye through the cornea, pupil, and lens, and is focused onto the retina, where photoreceptor cells convert light into signals sent to the brain.
    • Sound: vibrations from the environment enter the ear through the auditory canal, and are amplified by the middle ear bones, leading to nerve impulses sent to the brain.
    • Smell: specialized cells in the nose detect chemicals, resulting in nerve impulses sent to the brain.
    • Taste: taste buds on the tongue detect dissolved chemicals, resulting in nerve impulses sent to the brain.
    • Touch: nerve impulses are generated by cells sensitive to movement and pressure, and sent to the brain for interpretation.

    Health Science

    • Special senses refer to the sense organs that detect specific types of energy from the environment.
    • The nervous system processes information from the outside world to react, communicate, and maintain health.

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    Explore the foundations of physiological psychology, including biological explanations of behavior, epigenetic changes, and environmental factors influencing disease susceptibility and aging.

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