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Questions and Answers
What does incompatibilism assert regarding free will and determinism?
What does incompatibilism assert regarding free will and determinism?
Which philosophical view argues that free will exists but is influenced by prior events?
Which philosophical view argues that free will exists but is influenced by prior events?
According to Augustine, what plays a crucial role in achieving true freedom?
According to Augustine, what plays a crucial role in achieving true freedom?
What does Boethius suggest is the true source of happiness?
What does Boethius suggest is the true source of happiness?
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What is a key feature of libertarianism regarding free will?
What is a key feature of libertarianism regarding free will?
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How does Aquinas differentiate between types of judgment?
How does Aquinas differentiate between types of judgment?
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What solution did Boethius provide to the problem of divine foreknowledge and free will?
What solution did Boethius provide to the problem of divine foreknowledge and free will?
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What stance does hard determinism take on free will?
What stance does hard determinism take on free will?
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How did Descartes define intellect?
How did Descartes define intellect?
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What leads to errors in judgment according to Descartes?
What leads to errors in judgment according to Descartes?
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What does Hobbes believe motivates human actions?
What does Hobbes believe motivates human actions?
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According to Rousseau, what aspect characterizes the state of nature?
According to Rousseau, what aspect characterizes the state of nature?
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What is Locke’s view on freedom as opposed to licence?
What is Locke’s view on freedom as opposed to licence?
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How did Machiavelli redefine virtù?
How did Machiavelli redefine virtù?
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What did Augustine identify as a characteristic of sin?
What did Augustine identify as a characteristic of sin?
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What is the primary focus of Hobbes' psychological egoism?
What is the primary focus of Hobbes' psychological egoism?
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How did Hume define necessity?
How did Hume define necessity?
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What was the significance of Laplace's Demon thought experiment?
What was the significance of Laplace's Demon thought experiment?
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What did Maximos distinguish regarding human will?
What did Maximos distinguish regarding human will?
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What did Burke emphasize in relation to Rousseau's views?
What did Burke emphasize in relation to Rousseau's views?
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What aspect does Descartes believe is essential for overcoming sin?
What aspect does Descartes believe is essential for overcoming sin?
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What defines rational judgment according to Aquinas?
What defines rational judgment according to Aquinas?
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Descartes believes that God is responsible for human errors.
Descartes believes that God is responsible for human errors.
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What is the term for the mental process of evaluating motivations before making a decision?
What is the term for the mental process of evaluating motivations before making a decision?
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Burke criticized Rousseau's idealization of the state of nature, emphasizing the importance of __________.
Burke criticized Rousseau's idealization of the state of nature, emphasizing the importance of __________.
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Match the following concepts with their descriptions:
Match the following concepts with their descriptions:
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What concept refers to the innate disordered desires that stem from original sin, according to Augustine?
What concept refers to the innate disordered desires that stem from original sin, according to Augustine?
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What does Hume's skepticism primarily challenge regarding our understanding of the world?
What does Hume's skepticism primarily challenge regarding our understanding of the world?
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Which component of Freud's psychical apparatus acts as the moral conscience?
Which component of Freud's psychical apparatus acts as the moral conscience?
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What principle guides the ego to prioritize long-term benefits over immediate gratification, according to Freud?
What principle guides the ego to prioritize long-term benefits over immediate gratification, according to Freud?
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What does the concept of Laplace's Demon illustrate about the universe's nature?
What does the concept of Laplace's Demon illustrate about the universe's nature?
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Study Notes
General Positions of Freedom of the Will and Determinism
- Incompatibilism: Free will and determinism are mutually exclusive. If determinism is true, free will is an illusion.
- Compatibilism: Free will and determinism can coexist. Freedom is shaped by internal states, even if determined.
- Hard Determinism: Determinism is true and incompatible with free will. All actions are predetermined by external factors.
- Soft Determinism/Compatibilism: Human beings have free will even in a determined world, as long as they are able to act according to their desires without external coercion.
- Libertarianism: Free will is real and incompatible with determinism. Free actions are not predetermined; they result from independent agent causation.
Augustine, Boethius, Aquinas
- Augustine: Proposed a hierarchy of goods (spiritual > material). God's grace is essential for aligning the will with higher goods for true freedom. Original sin taints human nature, leading to concupiscence (disordered desires).
- Boethius: True happiness is found in virtue and wisdom. Freedom is the ability to seek and achieve the highest good, in line with the divine will. God's timeless knowledge does not constrain human free will; God's knowledge sees events as they happen without causing them.
- Aquinas: Differentiated between natural judgment (instinctual) and rational judgment (deliberative, reasoned). Natural judgment involves immediate, instinctual decisions, while rational judgment is based on reason and higher intellectual faculties.
René Descartes
- Descartes: Defined will as the capacity to choose or reject, intellect as the faculty to perceive and understand.
- Intellect & Will: The intellect presents ideas to the will, which affirms or denies them, leading to action or belief.
- Error: Errors occur when the will extends beyond clear and distinct perceptions provided by the intellect.
- God's Responsibility: Descartes argued that God is not responsible for our errors because He provides clear and distinct ideas. Errors arise from the misuse of free will.
Thomas Hobbes
- Empiricism: Hobbes believed knowledge comes from sensory experience; the mind is shaped by external stimuli.
- Materialism: All things, including thought and action, are explained through matter and motion.
- Basic Motivations: Hobbes identified appetite, aversion, love, hate, and deliberation as fundamental drivers of action.
- Psychological Egoism: All human actions are driven by self-interest and desire for personal gain.
- Happiness: Happiness is the continuous fulfillment of desires, avoidance of pain.
- Conflict in State of Nature: Hobbes saw humans' conflict in the state of nature as resulting from competition, distrust, and the pursuit of power.
Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Edmund Burke
- Rousseau's State of Nature: Rousseau viewed the state of nature as a primitive stage of innocence with freedom, equality, and self-preservation and compassion.
- Self-Consciousness & Time: Rousseau believed that advancements in self-consciousness and awareness of time led to the complexities of society.
- Role of Civilization: Rousseau argued that civilization and society corrupt natural human goodness due to inequality, dependency, and unhealthy self-love (amour propre).
- Burke's Counterpoint: Burke criticized Rousseau's idealized state of nature, emphasizing the importance of tradition, social institutions, and gradual change for societal order.
John Locke
- Natural Law: Locke believed in a natural law governing human behavior based on reason, including rights to life, liberty, and property.
- Freedom vs. Licence: Locke differentiated between freedom (acting with reason and natural law) and license (acting without regard for others' rights).
- Social Contract: The social contract is an agreement among individuals to form a government protecting natural rights, ensuring freedom and security.
Niccolò Machiavelli
- Virtù: Machiavelli redefined virtù as the ability to adapt for political power, using pragmatic means, including ruthlessness and manipulation when necessary.
- Human Nature: Machiavelli viewed humans as inherently selfish and corruptible. Leaders should be realistic about human nature and use control/manipulation to maintain power.
St. Augustine of Hippo and St. Maximos the Confessor
- Augustine's Characteristics of Sin: Augustine identified pride, desire, ignorance, and weakness as characteristics of sin. Original sin taints human nature, leading to concupiscence (disordered desires), and God's grace is essential for overcoming sin.
- Hierarchy of Goods: Augustine's hierarchy prioritized spiritual and eternal goods over temporal and material ones.
- Sin, Concupiscence, Grace: Augustine believed original sin affected human nature (leading to concupiscence). God's grace is fundamental in overcoming sin.
- Maximos: Maximos distinguished between the natural will (inherent inclination toward good) and the gnomic will (deliberative, able to choose good or evil).
David Hume
- Skepticism: Hume was skeptical about the certainty of knowledge, especially concerning causality, the self, and the external world.
- Necessity/Determinism: Hume defined necessity as the constant conjunction of events and inference from one event to another based on experience.
- Voluntary Acts: A voluntary act arises from internal motivations and desires, shaped by prior experiences and perceptions.
The Baron D’Holbach and Pierre Simon de Laplace
- D'Holbach's Hard Determinism: D'Holbach asserted that all events, including human actions, are predetermined by prior causes and natural laws, rejecting free will.
- Laplace's Demon: Laplace's Demon is a hypothetical intellect that, knowing all forces and positions of particles, could predict the future with certainty, illustrating the deterministic nature of the universe.
Sigmund Freud
- Psychic Apparatus: Freud's psychic apparatus comprises the id (primitive desires), ego (rational self), and superego (moral conscience).
- Principles: The pleasure principle drives the id to seek immediate gratification, while the reality principle guides the ego to delay gratification for long-term benefit.
- Hard Determinism: Freud saw human behavior as determined by unconscious desires and past experiences, minimizing free will.
- Freud's Hard Determinism: Human behavior is determined by unconscious desires and past experiences, leaving little room for free will.
Deliberation
- Deliberation is the mental process of evaluating motivations before making a decision.
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Description
Explore the contrasting views on free will and determinism through major philosophical perspectives like incompatibilism, compatibilism, and libertarianism. Delve into the thoughts of key philosophers such as Augustine, Boethius, and Aquinas to understand how these ideas intersect with the concepts of good and grace.
