Philosophy of Ethics and the Golden Rule
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Questions and Answers

What does cultural relativism primarily highlight?

  • The absolute nature of moral values
  • The universal applicability of the golden rule
  • The differing moral beliefs held by various cultures (correct)
  • Consistency in moral rules across different cultures

Which philosopher's formulation of the golden rule implies harm-minimization?

  • Thales
  • Buddha (correct)
  • Confucius
  • Kant

What is the main distinction between the positive and negative variants of the golden rule?

  • One focuses on welfare maximization while the other focuses on harm avoidance (correct)
  • They originated from different philosophical traditions
  • One is more widely accepted than the other
  • They differ in their universal applicability

Which statement best summarizes the disagreement regarding the golden rule?

<p>Its significance as a meta rule is debated (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What commonality exists among various moral systems regarding the golden rule?

<p>They generally include some version of the golden rule (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best captures the essence of the golden rule?

<p>Individuals should treat others as they wish to be treated (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the content, which philosopher associated with the golden rule emphasizes the concept of a universal law?

<p>Kant (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What implication does the golden rule have regarding moral judgment according to Kelsen?

<p>It suggests moral values are inherently relative (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does Moore argue about the concept of goodness?

<p>Goodness is a simple concept that resists further definition. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does Moore illustrate the difficulty in defining goodness?

<p>By using the colour yellow as an analogy. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a tautology, according to the content provided?

<p>A statement that repeats the same idea in different words. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why does Moore believe one cannot adequately define the colour yellow?

<p>Scientific explanations fail to convey subjective experience. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is intuitionism in the context of Moore's ethical theory?

<p>The idea that goodness is recognized through direct experience. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What analogy is used to express the limitations of defining subjective experiences?

<p>Describing yellow in terms of mixtures and wavelengths. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about goodness is NOT consistent with Moore's argument?

<p>Goodness can be defined through emotional states. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What point does Moore make regarding someone who has never seen yellow?

<p>They cannot fully grasp the concept without direct experience. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What defines a proposition as factually significant according to the content?

<p>It can be verified through observable experience. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main implication of logical positivism regarding ethics and religion?

<p>They are fundamentally meaningless. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Rudolf Carnap, what does the word 'God' refer to?

<p>Something beyond empirical experience. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What conclusion does A.J. Ayer draw regarding the existence of God?

<p>It is meaningless to assert that there is a God. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does Ayer suggest about moral statements like 'X is morally wrong'?

<p>They are not subject to proof of truth or falsity. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does Ayer’s argument illustrate about metaphysical utterances?

<p>They cannot possess literal significance. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the first premise (P1) of Ayer's argument regarding the existence of God?

<p>It is meaningless to assert ‘There is a God’ without verification. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the content describe the method to verify the truth of a proposition?

<p>By conducting empirical observations. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does Hobbes believe is the result of living in a state of nature?

<p>A war of all against all (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What motivates individuals to form a social contract according to Hobbes?

<p>Self-interest (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What do individuals agree to in a social contract as proposed by Hobbes?

<p>To surrender certain freedoms for protection (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Hobbes, why is there a need for enforcement in the social contract?

<p>To ensure compliance and avoid violation (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What moral principles does Hobbes advance to address natural competition and distrust?

<p>To keep contracts, show gratitude, and refrain from retributive punishment (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the essence of Hobbes' argument regarding human nature?

<p>Humans seek to preserve their lives and avoid harm (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What consequence does Hobbes see in the absence of a common power?

<p>A state of potential conflict and insecurity (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which philosopher is mentioned as advancing similar arguments to Hobbes?

<p>Bernard de Mandeville (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does Hume suggest is the relationship between beauty and the mind?

<p>Beauty exists only within the experience of the observer's mind. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Hume, how are moral judgments determined?

<p>Based on personal sentiment and emotional reactions. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does Hume imply about the qualities of a circle in relation to beauty?

<p>The beauty of a circle is experienced through emotional sentiment. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of human feelings does Hume express skepticism about?

<p>Humans feel a general love for mankind, independent of personal relationships. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does Hume differentiate between vice and virtue?

<p>They are projections of human emotions and sentiments. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is implied by Hume's statement that beauty cannot be sought through senses or mathematical reasoning?

<p>Beauty is a subjective experience rather than an objective fact. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What reasoning does Hume give for the emotional basis of moral judgments?

<p>They reflect individual sentiments and feelings towards actions. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What concept does Hume challenge regarding the perception of beauty?

<p>Beauty is a product of individual context and emotion. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the open-question argument imply about defining the term 'good'?

<p>It suggests that 'good' cannot be fully defined by naturalistic terms. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes a barren tautology?

<p>It contains empty content that adds no new insights. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Moore, what happens if 'good' is equated to 'X'?

<p>It implies 'X is good' would be a barren tautology. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the concept of 'good' failing to be identical to any natural property indicate?

<p>That moral definitions are inherently complex. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why does Moore argue that the statement 'good is pleasure' cannot be a barren tautology?

<p>It has the capacity to motivate behavior. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What effect does defining 'good' in terms of pleasure leave open?

<p>Room for philosophical exploration. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the outcome if 'X is good' does not motivate action?

<p>It suggests that 'good' cannot be equivalent to 'X'. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the open-question argument highlight about moral definitions?

<p>They often invite further inquiries. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Open-question argument

A philosophical argument used to show that defining "good" in terms of natural properties like pleasure or happiness leads to further questioning.

Naturalistic fallacy

The mistaken idea that moral terms can be reduced to natural properties (like pleasure).

Barren tautology

An analytical statement that's true by definition but offers no new information or guidance.

Moral terms

Words like 'good' that describe moral qualities or values.

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Closed concept

Concepts with precise and fixed definitions that do not invite further questioning.

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Moore's argument

Argument against reducing moral concepts to non-moral ones.

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Motivating reason

A reason that gives a person a good cause to act or behave a certain way.

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Indefinable concept

A concept that cannot be defined in terms of other concepts or properties without being essentially circular.

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Factual Significance

A sentence is factually significant if we can determine its truth or falsity through observation or experience.

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Verification Method

The method we use to establish whether a statement is true or false. It defines the meaning of the statement.

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Logical Positivism

A philosophical view that only statements verifiable through experience have meaning.

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Metaphysical Statements

Statements about things beyond experience, like the existence of God or the nature of reality.

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Ayer's Argument

Claims that statements about God's existence are meaningless because they cannot be empirically verified.

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Moral Statements

Statements expressing moral judgments about right and wrong.

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Empirical Verification

Confirming or disproving a statement through observation or experiment.

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Meaninglessness of Moral Statements (Ayer)

Ayer argues that moral statements are meaningless because they cannot be verified through experience.

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Tautology

A statement that says the same thing twice, offering no new information.

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Intuitionism

A moral theory that suggests we directly grasp 'goodness' through intuition and experience.

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Simple Concept

A concept that cannot be broken down into more basic components or defined in terms of other properties.

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Cultural Relativism

The idea that different cultures hold different moral beliefs, implying that morality is relative to each culture.

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Golden Rule

A universal moral principle that emphasizes treating others as you would like to be treated.

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Positive Variant

A version of the Golden Rule that focuses on affirmative actions, like actively helping others.

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Negative Variant

A version of the Golden Rule that focuses on avoiding harm to others.

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Harm Minimization

A moral principle that aims to reduce or prevent harm to others.

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Welfare Maximization

A moral principle that aims to increase well-being and promote the good of others.

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Meta Rule

A rule that governs other rules, often expressing a general principle about how rules should be applied.

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Consistency

The principle of applying the same rules to oneself as to others, avoiding double standards.

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State of Nature

A hypothetical condition where there is no government or social order. Individuals are free to act as they please, but this freedom leads to constant fear and conflict.

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Bellum Omnium Contra Omnes

Latin for 'the war of all against all', describing the state of nature where everyone is constantly at war with each other.

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Social Contract

A voluntary agreement between individuals to give up some of their freedoms in exchange for protection and order from a sovereign or government.

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Sovereign

An authority or power that has the ultimate authority in a society, responsible for enforcing laws and maintaining order.

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Hobbes' Motivation for Social Contract

Individuals are motivated by self-interest to enter a social contract because they realize that the state of nature is too dangerous and destructive for their own well-being.

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Enforcement of Social Contract

The social contract requires a system of enforcement to ensure that everyone complies with the rules and obligations. This typically involves punishment for violations and rewards for adherence.

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Moral Principles in Social Contract

Hobbes argues that certain moral principles are essential for the social contract to work, such as keeping agreements, showing gratitude, and refraining from revenge.

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Unchanging Moral Principles (Hobbes)

Basic moral rules are unchangeable because they address fundamental human needs and motivations. Humans will always seek self-preservation and avoid harm, making these rules necessary for survival.

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Hume's View on Beauty

Beauty is not an objective quality inherent in objects. Instead, it arises from a subjective emotional response, like pleasure or delight, triggered by the object in the mind of the observer.

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Hume's View on Morality

Moral judgments aren't based on objective facts but on our subjective feelings and emotions. We call an action 'good' or 'bad' based on our emotional reaction, not on some inherent moral property of the action.

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What is the object of morality?

Hume questioned the existence of a universal 'love of mankind' independent of personal qualities, services or relations. He suggests that morality is grounded in our emotional responses to individuals and situations.

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Hume's Skepticism

Hume was skeptical about the extent of our concern for others. He believed that our emotional responses, like compassion, are usually motivated by our own interests and relationships.

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Hume's Argument: Beauty

Hume argues that beauty cannot be measured or explained by scientific principles, as it is a subjective feeling triggered by an object. The beauty lies in the mind of the beholder, not in the object itself.

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Hume's Argument: Morality

Hume's argument suggests that morality is not a system of objective rules but rather a set of subjective emotional responses. 'Good' and 'bad' are expressions of our feelings towards actions.

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Hume's Scepticism: Love of Mankind

Hume doubts the existence of a universal love for all humans, independent of personal qualities, services or relationships. He believes our concern for others is usually influenced by our own interests and connections.

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Hume's Influence

Hume's ideas, particularly his focus on the subjective nature of morality and aesthetics, profoundly influenced the development of later philosophy and continue to be debated today.

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Study Notes

Jurisprudence - Introduction to Metaethics (II) - Supplementary Notes

  • G.E. Moore's work significantly influenced metaethics, particularly his analysis of 'goodness' using open and closed questions.
  • A closed question admits no further meaningful questioning because the answer is implicit in the definition. Examples include "Is a triangle a three-sided polygon?" and "Is a bachelor an unmarried man?"
  • An open question, such as "What is good?", can be questioned even if the terms used are understood, because the answer may not be immediately apparent from the definition.
  • Moore argued that "good" is indefinable, meaning it cannot be equated with any natural property like pleasure.
  • Moore's "open question argument" demonstrates that defining "good" in terms of natural properties always leads to further questions, proving it is not reducible to such properties.
  • Moral terms, like "good," cannot be reduced to natural properties.
  • The concept of "goodness" is indefinable.
  • A barren tautology is a statement that repeats the same idea in different words, offering no new information. "All bachelors are unmarried men" is an example.
  • Moral statements, like "X is morally wrong," are not verifiable in the same way as factual statements.
  • Logical Positivism, championed by the Vienna Circle, posits that meaningfulness comes from verifiability. A meaningful sentence can be proven true or false through observation.
  • The verification principle argues that statements about ethics, religion, aesthetics, or anything beyond empirical observation are meaningless. Statements about God or moral judgments lack meaning because they cannot be verified.
  • Hume's views on morality suggest it is based on emotion rather than reason. Beauty, vice and virtue have no objective existence but are felt sensations.
  • Hobbes' ethical egoism argues that moral judgements depend on self-interest.
  • In the state of nature, without rules, humans act first and foremost in their self-interest.
  • Morality can therefore be derived from the need of humans to have a society and survive.
  • Cultural relativism implies that moral codes are relative to the culture in which they are formed (no universal truths).

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This quiz explores key concepts in the philosophy of ethics, notably cultural relativism and the golden rule. It includes questions on influential philosophers and their contributions to moral theory, especially the challenges of defining concepts like goodness. Test your understanding of these philosophical ideas and their implications for moral judgment.

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