Philosophy: Knowledge and Truth

Study Notes

Words like "demand," "supply," "money," and "price" have specific meanings in economics that differ from everyday usage.
These terms follow particular rules, referred to as "language games," which shape their application within the discipline.

Argumentum ad Hominem (Appeal to the Person): Discredits an argument by attacking the individual presenting it instead of the argument itself.
Argumentum ad Baculum (Appeal to Force): Leverages threats or fear to persuade or advance an argument.
Argumentum ad Misericordiam (Appeal to Emotion): Employs emotional appeals, such as pity, to sway opinions.
Argumentum ad Populum (Appeal to the Popular): Suggests an idea is valid simply because many people accept it.
Argumentum ad Traditionem (Appeal to Tradition): Claims an idea is acceptable because it has been established for a long time.
Argumentum ad Ignorantiam (Appeal to Ignorance): Concludes that a statement is true if it has not been proven false and vice versa.
Petitio Principii (Begging the Question): Assumes the truth of what one aims to prove, often leading to circular reasoning.
Hasty Generalization: Draws a broad conclusion based on insufficient evidence.
Cause-and-Effect Fallacy: Assumes a causal relationship between unrelated events.
Fallacy of Composition: Incorrectly reasons that what is true for a part must be true for the whole.
Fallacy of Division: Assumes that what is true for the whole applies to its parts.

Coherence theory may struggle to justify truths about the physical world compared to other theories like correspondence theory.
Prominent figures connected to coherence theory include rationalists such as Spinoza, Leibniz, Hegel, and Bradley, as well as logical positivists like Neurath and Hempel.
While coherence is valuable, it should not be the sole measure of truth, as coherent systems can be based on faulty assumptions.

A statement is regarded as true if it demonstrates practical usefulness.
Truth is examined by considering the consequences of believing in a statement.
Example: Belief in ghosts may provide comfort and explanations, holding some pragmatic truth.

A belief can have utility in some contexts but may also be harmful in others.
Being successful does not guarantee the truth of a belief.
Language distinguishes between "useful" and "true"; a useful belief, like faith in a spouse's fidelity, may not reflect an objective truth.

False beliefs can sometimes be more beneficial than confronting uncomfortable realities.

Philosophical methods promote systematic thinking and aid in seeking wisdom and truth.
Philosophizing involves expressing thoughts in a philosophical manner.