Philosophy: Descartes and Locke
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Questions and Answers

What does the causal principle state regarding the relationship between an idea and its cause?

  • The cause must be less real than the idea.
  • The idea must be completely independent of its cause.
  • The cause must contain at least as much reality as the idea. (correct)
  • The cause and idea must be identical.

How does God's existence contribute to Descartes' project of rebuilding knowledge?

  • It provides a foundation for questioning all knowledge.
  • It ensures his clear and distinct perceptions can be trusted. (correct)
  • It leads to more radical doubt.
  • It introduces confusion into his arguments.

What argument does John Locke present against innate knowledge?

  • Knowledge results from experience, reason, and learning. (correct)
  • Some truths cannot be learned.
  • Innate knowledge is always contradictory.
  • Universal agreement indicates knowledge is innate.

According to Locke, why does universal agreement not prove that certain truths are innate?

<p>Such agreement can arise from learned experience. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does Locke assert about the relationship between awareness and knowledge?

<p>Truths cannot be imprinted on the mind without awareness. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does Locke differentiate the mind's capacity to know from innate knowledge?

<p>He argues that capacity for knowledge does not imply pre-existing knowledge. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does Locke assert happens when truths require reasoning to discover?

<p>They are learned rather than innate. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In Descartes' view, how does God's perfection affect human knowledge?

<p>It serves as a basis for certain knowledge. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the concept of contradiction imply about objects?

<p>Objects cannot possess opposite qualities at the same time. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does relativity challenge the notion of qualities belonging to objects?

<p>It suggests that qualities like taste are subjective and vary by the perceiver. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key claim of Russell's materialism regarding our sensory experiences?

<p>The existence of matter provides a sound basis for explaining sensory experiences. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What issue arises from considering matter as a 'substratum' according to the content?

<p>It results in an infinite regress of requiring more substances to support qualities. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the content, what demonstrates the coherence and consistency of our experiences with material objects?

<p>The continuity of objects over time and across perspectives. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one major argument Berkeley uses against material objects?

<p>The assumption of material objects leads to logical contradictions. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does instinct imply about the belief in matter, as presented in the content?

<p>It aligns with human thought and presents fewer challenges than idealism. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best represents a critique of idealism compared to materialism?

<p>It simplifies explanations for sensory experiences. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is Philonous' main argument against materialism?

<p>It is based on abstract, unobservable entities. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the Microscope metaphor illustrate?

<p>Perceived qualities depend on the observer's perspective. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the Blind Man Analogy emphasize regarding perception?

<p>Perception is fundamental to our existence. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the Dream and Illusions metaphor contribute to the understanding of existence?

<p>It supports the idea that perception defines existence. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What conclusion does Philonous reach in his dialogue with Hylas?

<p>Idealism is more coherent and reflects common sense better than materialism. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one major idea discussed by Bertrand Russell regarding matter?

<p>There is a direct relationship between sense-data and external reality. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What philosophical stance is illustrated by the Rope Metaphor?

<p>Continuity of ideas comes from overlapping concepts rather than singular sensations. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which quality does idealism attribute to perceptions of external objects?

<p>They are fundamentally linked to existence. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes objective reality from formal reality according to Descartes?

<p>Objective reality is the representation within an idea, while formal reality is the actual existence of the thing represented. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of idea does Descartes argue is present in the mind from birth?

<p>Innate Ideas (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why does Descartes conclude that the idea of God must originate from God Himself?

<p>The idea of God represents something perfect, and he is finite and imperfect. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does Descartes consider error to arise specifically from?

<p>Judgments (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does Descartes perceive the reliability of adventitious ideas?

<p>They can be deceiving and may not correspond to external realities. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does Descartes assign to God in relation to truth?

<p>God serves as a guarantor of truth and would not deceive. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of ideas does Descartes define as those created by the imagination?

<p>Invented Ideas (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does Strong AI claim about a digital computer running the correct program?

<p>It can have a mind, consciousness, and intentionality. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Searle, what is the main difference between syntax and semantics?

<p>Syntax is the manipulation of symbols, whereas semantics is about meaning and understanding. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What conclusion does Descartes reach about the existence of God based on the idea of God?

<p>There must be a perfect being to produce the idea of perfection. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What scenario does the Chinese Room thought experiment illustrate?

<p>Following syntactic rules does not equate to semantic understanding. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What argument do proponents of Strong AI make regarding the Chinese Room system?

<p>The system possesses genuine understanding of Chinese. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What critique does Searle present regarding robots equipped with sensors?

<p>Robots process data syntactically and lack genuine understanding. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why does Searle argue that programs alone cannot produce minds?

<p>Programs lack semantic understanding. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does Searle propose is necessary to create a mind?

<p>Replicating the biological capabilities of the brain. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a fundamental assertion made by proponents of Strong AI regarding software and hardware?

<p>The mind is to the brain what software is to hardware. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary goal of Descartes in his First Meditation?

<p>To establish a foundation for certain knowledge (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of Gettier's work in epistemology?

<p>It shows the inadequacy of the JTB model for defining knowledge (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following concepts does Descartes employ to challenge his beliefs?

<p>Methodical doubt (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What example does Descartes use to illustrate the unreliability of the senses?

<p>Optical illusions can deceive people (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What argument does Descartes present to question the nature of reality?

<p>The concept of an evil demon deceiving him (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does Descartes' Dream Argument challenge perceptions of reality?

<p>By stating that dreams make it hard to distinguish reality from illusion (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What did Gettier demonstrate about justified true belief (JTB)?

<p>JTB requires an additional condition (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why does Descartes doubt the reliability of the senses?

<p>They may lead to false interpretations (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Judgments

Assertions about the truth or falsehood of something, which are prone to error.

Sources of Ideas

Ideas can originate from innate ideas (present at birth), adventitious ideas (derived from senses), or invented ideas (created by imagination).

Adventitious Ideas

Ideas derived from sensory experiences, like hearing a sound or seeing a color.

Objective Reality

The content or representation within an idea. For example, the idea of a mountain has objective reality because it represents something.

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Formal Reality

The actual existence of the thing itself. For example, a mountain that exists in the real world has formal reality.

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Idea of God

A perfect, infinite, all-knowing, and all-powerful being. This idea contains more objective reality than any other idea because it represents something infinite and perfect.

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Descartes' Argument for God's Existence

Descartes argues that a finite and imperfect being like himself could not have conceived the idea of a perfect being without such a being truly existing. Therefore, the idea of God must originate from God himself.

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God as Guarantor of Truth

Descartes believes that God, as a perfect being, would not deceive him because deception is an imperfection. Therefore, he can trust clear and distinct perceptions as true.

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JTB Model

A traditional definition of knowledge that states 'knowledge is justified true belief'. It means you have a belief, you have justification for that belief, and the belief is actually true.

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Gettier Problem

A philosophical thought experiment that challenges the JTB model by showing that a belief can be justified and true, but not count as knowledge due to luck or coincidence.

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Fourth Condition

A proposed addition to the JTB model to address the Gettier problem. It aims to capture additional requirements for knowledge beyond just being justified, true, and believed.

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Methodical Doubt

Descartes' approach to finding certain knowledge - examining and questioning all beliefs and assumptions, looking for reasons to doubt them.

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Doubt the Senses

Part of Descartes' method, challenging the reliability of information gathered through the senses.

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Dream Argument

Descartes' thought experiment where he questions if he might be dreaming, since in a dream he can't be sure of reality.

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Evil Demon

Descartes' hypothetical being who could be deceiving him about everything, including the existence of the physical world.

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Foundational Knowledge

The goal of Descartes' First Meditation is to find secure and certain knowledge as a foundation for all other knowledge.

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Idealism

The philosophical view that reality is fundamentally mental or spiritual, and that the existence of objects depends on their being perceived.

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Materialism

The belief that the only reality is matter and its properties, and that everything, including consciousness, can be explained in terms of physical processes.

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Substratum

A hypothetical underlying substance that is supposed to support or carry the properties and qualities of objects, but is itself unobservable.

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Primary Qualities

Attributes of objects that are independent of perception, such as size, shape, and motion.

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Secondary Qualities

Attributes of objects that are dependent on perception, such as color, sound, and taste.

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The Microscope Analogy

The observation that the appearance of an object changes under magnification, illustrating that qualities like color and size are not inherent in the object itself but depend on perception.

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The Blind Man Analogy

A thought experiment where a blind person gaining sight for the first time would initially perceive colors and shapes as sensations in their mind, highlighting the centrality of perception in experience.

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Dreams and Illusions

The argument that the vivid and realistic nature of dreams, where objects appear just as real as in waking life, challenges the notion of an external material reality and emphasizes the role of perception.

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Strong AI

The belief that a computer running the right program can truly have a mind, consciousness, and understanding, just like a human.

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Syntax vs. Semantics

Syntax refers to the rules of manipulating symbols, while semantics refers to the meaning of those symbols.

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Chinese Room

A thought experiment where a person without any knowledge of Chinese follows instructions to manipulate Chinese symbols, creating seemingly intelligent outputs.

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Can a computer truly understand?

Searle argues that following syntactic rules is not enough for understanding. A computer can manipulate symbols but doesn't necessarily comprehend their meaning.

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Why does the system not understand?

Searle argues that the Chinese Room system can't truly understand because it lacks the ability to transition from manipulating symbols according to rules (syntax) to understanding their meaning (semantics).

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Biological basis of mind?

Searle believes that mental states are biological phenomena and that simulating these processes on a computer doesn't equate to replicating them.

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Can we truly create a mind?

According to Searle, creating a mind would require replicating the biological capabilities of the brain, not just programming a computer.

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What's the conclusion on Strong AI?

Searle believes that computer programs alone cannot produce minds because they lack the ability to grasp the meaning of the symbols they manipulate.

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Causal Principle

The idea that the cause of an idea must have at least as much reality as the idea itself. This principle supports Descartes' argument for God's existence.

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Foundation for Certainty

Descartes believes God's existence confirms the reliability of clear and distinct perceptions, leading from doubt to knowledge.

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Idea of God's Perfection

Descartes argues that the idea of God, as infinite and perfect, couldn't have originated from him or anything less than perfect.

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God as Source of Reality

Descartes concludes that God exists as the origin of all reality and truth, a cornerstone of his philosophical system.

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Locke's Rejection of Innate Knowledge

John Locke argues against the notion that humans are born with innate principles or knowledge, proposing that all knowledge comes from experience, reason, and learning.

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Universal Agreement Doesn't Prove Innateness

Locke criticizes the use of universal agreement to support innate knowledge, suggesting it could arise from experience and reasoning.

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Imprinting and Awareness

Locke argues that if truths were innate, they would be consciously known, as it makes no sense for something to be imprinted on the mind but remain unknown.

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Capacity to Know vs. Innate Knowledge

The ability to acquire knowledge doesn't equal innate knowledge; equating the two would mistakenly make all knowledge innate.

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Contradiction

Objects cannot have opposite qualities at the same time, like being hot and cold. The bucket water experiment demonstrates this.

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Relativity

Our senses vary. Cilantro tastes different to different people, showing that qualities aren't inherent to objects.

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Infinite Regress

If matter needs another substance to hold its qualities, that then needs another... it goes on forever.

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Sense Data and Objects

We experience sense data, but their consistency and public nature suggest material objects as their cause.

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Common Sense

Material objects explain how our sensory experience remains consistent over time and across different viewpoints.

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Coherence of Experiences

Seeing a cat move smoothly suggests a consistent object, not just random sensory input.

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Berkeley's Idealism

Objects don't exist independently of our perception. They are only ideas in our mind.

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Russell's Materialism

Material objects are the most plausible explanation for our sensory experiences. They exist independently of our perception.

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Study Notes

Plato's Theory of Knowledge

  • Plato explored knowledge as justified true belief, arguing that a belief must be true and justified to constitute knowledge.
  • He outlined different interpretations of justification, finding that simply asserting a belief's truth wasn't sufficient.
  • Plato investigated how knowledge distinguishes itself from true belief, finding that justification is an essential component.

Gettier's Problem

  • Gettier challenged the classical definition of knowledge (justified true belief).
  • He presented counterexamples where a belief is justified and true but not genuinely known due to luck or accident.
  • Gettier's work highlighted that justification alone isn't sufficient for knowledge, necessitating a deeper connection between belief, truth, and justification.

Descartes' Methodological Doubt

  • Descartes aimed to establish certain knowledge by systematically doubting everything he thought he knew.
  • Key themes included doubting sensory perceptions, the possibility of dreams, and the existence of a deceiving God.
  • He concluded that his own existence was the foundational truth, stated as "I think, therefore I am" ("Cogito, ergo sum").
  • Descartes introduced the idea of the mind (res cogitans) as distinct from the body (res extensa).

Locke's Theory of Knowledge

  • Locke argued against innate ideas, claiming that all knowledge comes from experience.
  • He proposed that the mind is a "blank slate" (tabula rasa) at birth.
  • Locke distinguished between primary qualities, which exist independently of perception, and secondary qualities, which do not exist apart from a perceiver.
  • He stressed the importance of experience in shaping our ideas and knowledge.

Hume's Theory of Causation

  • Hume argued that the concept of causation is based solely on habit and experience, not inherent, necessary connections.
  • He emphasized that we only observe sequences of events and develop causal assumptions based on repetition, not direct observation of causation.
  • Hume's skepticism questioned the legitimacy of reasoning from experience to make universal pronouncements (e.g., induction).

Berkeley's Idealism

  • Berkeley argued that only minds and ideas exist; material objects only exist when perceived or conceived.
  • Key concepts include "to be is to be perceived" and the idea that qualities exist in the mind.
  • Berkeley challenged the traditional conceptions of objects existing independently of conscious awareness.

Putnam's Brain in a Vat Argument

  • Putnam explored skeptical scenarios where we might be brains in a vat, experiencing simulated reality.
  • His arguments questioned whether we can be certain about the nature of external reality or our sensory experiences.
  • Putnam's argument highlighted that such a scenario is self-refuting, as the very statement implies a connection to a possible outside world.

Whewell's View of Science

  • Whewell argued against a purely empirical approach to science.
  • He emphasized the importance of using causal principles and theoretical reasoning, and not just observation, to advance scientific understanding.
  • He highlighted that causes are not merely observed regularities or patterns, but rather active principles or forces guiding phenomena.

Popper's Falsifiability

  • Popper emphasized falsifiability as a criterion for distinguishing scientific theories from non-scientific ones.
  • He argued that scientific theories should be testable and potentially falsifiable through evidence, and not verifiable.
  • Popper stressed that scientific knowledge is continually revised and refined as our understanding develops and new ideas emerge.

Turing's Imitation Game

  • Turing's imitation game focused on whether machines could exhibit intelligent behavior indistinguishable from humans.
  • The test involved natural language communication between humans and machines.
  • Turing's work prompted reflection on the nature of intelligence and the possibility of artificial consciousness.

Searle's Chinese Room Argument

  • Searle challenged the idea that computer programs could produce understanding or consciousness.
  • His Chinese Room thought experiment illustrated that manipulating symbols (syntax) without understanding (semantics) doesn't equate to genuine comprehension.
  • Searle emphasized that a computer, unlike a human, lacks the ability to relate symbols to the world around it, questioning whether computers are truly intelligent.

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Explore key philosophical concepts presented by Descartes and Locke in this quiz. Understand the implications of God's existence on knowledge and Locke's arguments against innate ideas. Test your knowledge on the relationship between awareness, reasoning, and understanding as per these influential thinkers.

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