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Questions and Answers
What occurs when one attribute of a person is used to form an overall impression of that individual?
Which distortion involves identifying someone with a group and then using the group's attributes to describe the individual?
What is the tendency to single out aspects of a situation that align with one's needs, values, or attitudes?
Which concept involves assigning personal attributes to other individuals?
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What is the process of developing explanations for perceived causes of events?
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Which factor relates to the consistency of a person's behavior across different situations?
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What does the Fundamental Attribution Error refer to?
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Which term describes an individual's belief in their ability to perform adequately in a situation?
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What is classical conditioning based on?
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Which principle states that behavior leading to pleasant outcomes is likely to be repeated?
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What is the process of controlling behavior by manipulating consequences known as?
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What term describes the creation of a new behavior through positive reinforcement of successive approximations?
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Study Notes
Common Perceptual Distortions
- Stereotypes occur when an individual is identified with a group or category, and then attributes associated with the group or category are used to describe the individual.
- Halo effects occur when one attribute of a person or situation is used to develop an overall impression of the individual or situation.
- Selective perception is the tendency to single out those aspects of a situation, person, or object that are consistent with one's needs, values, or attitudes.
- Projection is the assignment of one's personal attributes to other individuals.
- Contrast effects occur when the meaning or interpretation of something is arrived at by contrasting it with a recently occurring event or situation.
- Self-fulfilling prophecy is the tendency to create or find in another situation or individual that which one expected to find in the first place.
Link between Perception and Attribution
- Attribution is the process of developing explanations or assigning perceived causes for events.
- Attribution can be classified as internal or external, where internal causes are believed to be under an individual's control, and external causes are seen as coming from outside a person.
- Distinctiveness refers to the consistency of a person's behavior across different situations.
- Consensus refers to the likelihood of others responding in a similar way.
- Consistency refers to whether an individual responds the same way across time.
Fundamental Attribution Error
- The fundamental attribution error is the tendency to underestimate the influence of situational factors and to overestimate the influence of personal factors when evaluating someone else's behavior.
- Self-serving bias is the tendency to deny personal responsibility for performance problems but to accept personal responsibility for performance success.
Cultural Differences in Attributions
- In individualistic cultures, managers are more likely to attribute employee poor performance to internal causes.
- In collectivist cultures, managers overemphasize self-serving bias, blaming themselves for the group's failure.
Social Learning Theory
- Social learning theory describes how learning takes place through the reciprocal interactions among people, behavior, and environment.
- Self-efficacy is a person's belief that they can perform adequately in a situation, and is a key factor in self-control.
Learning by Reinforcement
- Reinforcement is the administration of a consequence as a result of a behavior.
- Proper management of reinforcement can change the direction, level, and persistence of an individual's behavior.
- Classical conditioning is a form of learning through association that involves the manipulation of stimuli to influence behavior.
- Operant conditioning is the process of controlling behavior by manipulating its consequences.
Laws of Reinforcement
- Law of effect states that behavior that results in a pleasant outcome is likely to be repeated, while behavior that results in an unpleasant outcome is not likely to be repeated.
- Extrinsic rewards are positively valued work outcomes that are given to the individual by some other person.
- Positive reinforcement is the administration of positive consequences that tend to increase the likelihood of repeating the desirable behavior in similar settings.
- Law of contingent reinforcement states that a reward should be given when the desired behavior occurs.
- Law of immediate reinforcement states that a reward should be given as soon as possible after the desired behavior occurs.
Shaping and Reinforcement Schedules
- Shaping is the creation of a new behavior by the positive reinforcement of successive approximations to it.
- Continuous reinforcement is the administration of a reward each time the desired behavior occurs.
- Intermittent reinforcement is the administration of rewards at unpredictable intervals.
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Description
Test your knowledge on common perceptual distortions like stereotypes, halo effects, and selective perception. Learn how these biases can impact how individuals are perceived in the workplace.
