Perception and Bias in Psychology

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Questions and Answers

What aspect of motivation refers to the energy a person exerts toward achieving a goal?

Persistence

Direction

Effort (correct)

Intensity

In which motivation theory are employees motivated by their perceived equity between inputs and outcomes?

Equity Theory (correct)

Job Characteristics Model

Hierarchy of Needs Theory

Goal Setting Theory

Which component of the Job Characteristics Model relates to how much an employee feels personally accountable for their work results?

Input-Outcome Ratio

Experienced Responsibility for Outcomes (correct)

Knowledge of Actual Results

Experienced Meaningfulness of Work

What does the Goal Setting Theory emphasize as crucial for motivation?

The establishment of specific goals Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following theories posits that motivation is influenced by the perceived relationship between stimuli and responses?

Operant Conditioning Theory Signup and view all the answers

What does the Fundamental Attribution Error refer to?

Attributing a person's behavior to their personal characteristics rather than situational factors. Signup and view all the answers

Which bias is characterized by a person attributing their successful outcomes to their own abilities?

Self-Serving Bias Signup and view all the answers

How does the First Impression Error impact ongoing perceptions?

It influences later perceptions based on initial judgments. Signup and view all the answers

What does the Similar to Me Effect primarily influence?

The tendency to favor individuals who share similar traits or characteristics. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the Halo/Horn Effect?

Evaluating someone positively based on one strong attribute while ignoring flaws. Signup and view all the answers

In the context of the Contrast Effect, what influences our perception of a person?

The qualifications of previously encountered individuals. Signup and view all the answers

What does Selective Perception imply about an individual's interpretation of information?

It indicates that prior experiences shape how information is processed. Signup and view all the answers

What is the essence of a Self-Fulfilling Prophecy in interpersonal relationships?

Beliefs about someone eventually shape their behavior accordingly. Signup and view all the answers

Which personality trait is characterized by a person's ability to control their emotional responses and maintain stability?

Neuroticism Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'Person Job Fit' refer to?

The alignment between a person's characteristics and the job's responsibilities. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following traits is NOT one of the Big Five personality dimensions?

Independence Signup and view all the answers

What indicates a high level of conscientiousness in an individual according to meta-analyses?

Higher job performance. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following personality types is defined as a 'doer' in Holland's Occupational Types?

Realistic Signup and view all the answers

Which one of the following MBTI dimensions assesses a preference for logical analysis versus emotional considerations?

Thinking (T) vs. Feeling (F) Signup and view all the answers

What is a direct consequence of a greater Person Job Fit in an organization?

Increased organizational citizenship behavior. Signup and view all the answers

In Holland's Occupational Types, which personality type is best described as a 'helper'?

Social Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements is true regarding the pattern of personality?

A person's personality remains the same across situations. Signup and view all the answers

Which trait is likely to be associated with a person who is highly organized and dependable?

Conscientiousness Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following dimensions in Hofstede's Theory focuses on the degree to which less powerful members defer to more powerful members in a society?

Power Distance Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes terminal values from instrumental values in Rokeach's Theory?

Terminal values are ends to be achieved, while instrumental values are means to achieve those ends. Signup and view all the answers

How are emotions and moods categorized differently?

Emotions are categorized in specific terms, while moods are categorized broadly. Signup and view all the answers

In Hofstede's framework, what characterizes a high score in the dimension of Uncertainty Avoidance?

A preference for structured situations and predictability. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about the Collectivism-Individualism dimension is true?

Collectivism focuses more on interdependence and group objectives. Signup and view all the answers

Which characteristic is associated with a low score in the Femininity-Masculinity dimension?

Emphasis on equality in gender relations. Signup and view all the answers

In the context of affect, how are feelings classified?

Feelings are categorized into emotions and moods. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary difference between terminal values and the other types of values mentioned in Rokeach's Theory?

Terminal values represent long-term aspirations, while others represent immediate behaviors. Signup and view all the answers

What typically defines a society with high Restraint in the Restraint-Indulgence dimension?

Citizens hold back on indulgent behavior and prioritize self-control. Signup and view all the answers

What does a high score in Long-Term Orientation imply about citizens' focus in a society?

Citizens focus more on future rewards and long-term outcomes. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary difference between surface acting and deep acting?

Surface acting involves suppressing felt emotions, while deep acting involves changing them. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes emotional intelligence?

A person's capacity to perceive, understand, and regulate both their own and others' emotions. Signup and view all the answers

What does affective events theory emphasize about workplace emotions?

Daily uplifts contribute to positive emotions in the workplace. Signup and view all the answers

Positive affectivity refers to which of the following traits?

The degree to which a person generally experiences pleasant emotions. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about emotional labor is true?

Excessive emotional labor may lead to emotional burnout. Signup and view all the answers

What is meant by 'display rules' in the context of emotional expression?

The societal or job-related expectations regarding how emotions should be expressed. Signup and view all the answers

Which component of emotional intelligence focuses on understanding the causes of emotions?

Understanding Signup and view all the answers

How does emotional contagion primarily affect group dynamics?

It enables group members to synchronize their emotional states. Signup and view all the answers

What is 'felt emotion' in the context of emotional expression?

The genuine emotion a person experiences internally. Signup and view all the answers

What impact does deep acting have on an individual's emotional state?

It can enhance an individual's ability to genuinely feel positive emotions. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Perceptual Bias

Inaccuracy in how we perceive the world.
Eight major types of perceptual bias.

Fundamental Attribution Error

When judging another person's behavior, we attribute the cause to them rather than external factors.
This bias occurs because it requires less mental effort.

Self-Serving Bias

When judging our own behavior, we attribute successes to ourselves and failures to external factors.
Often demonstrated by having one person teach another a task and then providing feedback.

Selective Perception

Our unique background, knowledge, and experience influence our perception.
Illustrated by the example of six blind men perceiving an elephant differently based on what body part they touched.

Similar To Me Effect

We tend to perceive someone more positively if they are similar to us.
Similarity can be based on any shared characteristic.

First Impression Error

Our initial perception of a person influences our later perceptions.
We tend to make initial judgments, positive or negative, about individuals in the first few moments of meeting them.

Halo/Horn Effect

Our overall impression of someone affects our perception of their specific traits.
A positive overall impression leads us to perceive their attributes more positively (halo effect), and a negative overall impression leads us to perceive their attributes more negatively (horn effect).

Contrast Effect

Our perception of someone is influenced by our perception of the previous people we've interacted with.
An unqualified applicant may seem great after interviewing with several even less qualified candidates.

Self-Fulfilling Prophecy

We behave in line with how we are perceived.
If we perceive someone as competent, they are more likely to perform well, and vice versa.

Supervisor-Subordinate Relationships

Supervisors rated their subordinates on factors like performance, dependability, and general satisfactoriness.
Subordinates rated their supervisors on support, interaction facilitation, goal emphasis, and work facilitation.
Both groups rated how similar they were to their counterpart.

Personality

Individual's characteristic patterns of thought, feelings, and behavior.
Each personality is unique and consistent across time and situations.

Taxonomies of Personality: Big Five

Neuroticism (emotional stability): Low neuroticism means high emotional stability, and vice versa.
Extraversion: Outward-focused, enjoys social interaction.
Openness to Experience: Open to new ideas, experiences, and perspectives.
Agreeableness: Cooperative, trusting, empathetic.
Conscientiousness: Organized, disciplined, hardworking.

Person-Job Fit

Degree of congruence between a person's characteristics (personality) and the characteristics of a job (duties and responsibilities).
Greater person-job fit leads to higher job performance, organizational citizenship behavior, and reduced withdrawal behavior.

Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)

Categorizes individuals based on four dimensions:
- Extroversion (E) vs Introversion (I)
- Sensing (S) vs Intuition (N)
- Thinking (T) vs Feeling (F)
- Judging (J) vs Perceiving (P)

Holland's Occupational Types

Categorizes individuals into six personality types:
- Realistic (R): Doers.
- Investigative (I): Thinkers.
- Artistic (A): Creators.
- Social (S): Helpers.
- Enterprising (E): Persuaders.
- Conventional (C): Organizers.

Values

Strong beliefs that transcend specific actions and situations.
Values have an emotional component, leading to upset when compromised.

Rokeach's Theory of Values

Individuals have unique terminal value and instrumental value profiles.
Terminal Values: Desirable end-states of existence, like "a comfortable life."
Instrumental Values: Desirable modes of conduct, like "ambitious."

Hofstede's Theory of National Values

Categorizes national values into six dimensions:
- Power Distance: Degree of acceptance of inequality.
- Collectivism vs Individualism: Focus on self vs others.
- Femininity vs Masculinity: Acceptance of traditional gender roles.
- Uncertainty Avoidance: Comfort level with uncertainty.
- Short-Term vs Long-Term Orientation: Focus on immediate vs future.
- Indulgence vs Restraint: Enjoyment of present vs restraint.

Affect

Synonymous with feelings, encompassing both emotions and moods.
Moods are general, positive or negative, while emotions are specific.

Emotional Contagion

Experiencing the emotions of another person.
Empathy involves sharing the feelings of another.
Demonstrated in research where an actor's mood affected the mood of a group.

Emotional Labor

Effort involved in displaying emotions required by one's job.
Felt Emotion: The emotion one truly feels.
Displayed Emotion: The emotion one is required to show.
Display Rule: The required emotion for the job.
Excessive emotional labor can lead to negative consequences, like burnout.

Surface Acting

Changing displayed emotion to meet a display rule while maintaining true feelings.
Involves concealing true emotions.

Deep Acting

Changing felt emotion to match a display rule.
Altering one's true feelings to meet job requirements.

Emotional Intelligence

Ability to perceive, understand, and regulate one's own emotions and those of others.
Perception: Recognizing emotions in oneself and others.
Understanding: Comprehending the causes of emotions.
Regulation: Managing emotions in oneself and others.

Causes of Emotions and Moods (Personal Characteristics)

Positive Affectivity: Tendency to experience pleasant emotions and positive moods.
Negative Affectivity: Tendency to experience unpleasant emotions and negative moods.
Affective Events Theory: Daily events, like a boss's absence, can cause positive or negative emotions.

Motivation

The direction, intensity, and persistence of effort toward achieving a goal.
Effort: The energy exerted.
Direction: What action is taken.
Intensity: How much effort is exerted.
Persistence: How long effort is sustained.

Six Major Theories of Motivation

Hierarchy of Needs Theory: Five levels of needs: physiological, safety, belongingness, esteem, and self-actualization.
Three Needs Theory: Three fundamental needs: achievement, affiliation, and power.
Operant Conditioning Theory: Focuses on stimulus and response: positive reinforcement, negative reinforcement, punishment, and extinction.
Goal Setting Theory: Motivation is driven by goals and their achievement.
Equity Theory: Focuses on comparing inputs and outcomes, leading to feelings of fairness or unfairness.
Job Characteristics Model: Examines five core job characteristics that influence motivation: skill variety, task identity, task significance, autonomy, and feedback.

Job Characteristics Model Explained

Experienced Meaningfulness of the Work: Jobs that are perceived as meaningful, valuable, and worthwhile.
Experienced Responsibility for Outcomes at Work: Feeling accountable for work results.
Knowledge of the Actual Results of the Work Activities: Understanding how effectively one is performing.

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Description

Explore the various types of perceptual biases that influence our understanding of the world. This quiz covers fundamental attribution error, self-serving bias, selective perception, and more. Test your knowledge of how these biases affect judgment and perception in everyday situations.