Questions and Answers
What is the primary function of the central nervous system?
Which type of cell is responsible for processing received information in the nervous system?
What characterizes primary injury in brain injury mechanisms?
Which of the following cranial nerves is responsible for vision?
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Which mechanism follows the primary injury in brain tissue?
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What is the primary effect of increased intracranial pressure?
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Which condition is characterized by the abnormal protrusion of brain tissue due to increased intracranial pressure?
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What is a common cause of ischemic stroke?
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What type of infection is a brain abscess typically caused by?
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Which characteristic of hydrocephalus involves excess cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in the ventricles?
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Study Notes
Pathophysiology of Neurosensory and Integrative Functions
- Nervous system divided into Central Nervous System (CNS) and Peripheral Nervous System (PNS).
- CNS integrates and coordinates sensory and motor information; responsible for higher functions like memory, learning, and emotion.
- PNS carries sensory and motor information between the CNS and organs/tissues.
Functions of the Nervous System
- Maintains homeostasis of the human body.
- Senses the environment, transmits information, processes it, and produces responses.
Stimuli and Impulses
- A stimulus is a change in the environment that affects the nervous system, leading to impulse generation.
- An impulse refers to changes in electrical processes that excite tissues and can spread through nerves.
Key Nervous Cells
- Receptors/Sensors: Specialized for receiving stimuli.
- Interneurons: Process and connect information within the nervous system.
- Neurons: Execute orders and reach effectors (e.g., muscles, glands).
- Glial Cells: Supportive cells that assist neuron function.
Cranial Nerves Functions
- Olfactory: Smell
- Optic: Vision
- Oculomotor: Eyemovement
- Trigeminal: Facial sensations and movements
- Facial: Taste and facial expressions
- Vestibulocochlear: Hearing and balance
- Glossopharyngeal: Taste and swallowing
- Vagus: Heart and digestive tract functions
- Accessory: Neck and shoulder movement
- Hypoglossal: Tongue movements
Alterations in Brain Functions
- Primary Injury: Immediate damage from trauma, leading to irreversible tissue damage.
- Secondary Injury: Progressive neurologic damage following the primary injury; can involve delayed cell death (apoptosis).
Increased Intracranial Pressure (ICP)
- Causes ischemia and infarction due to mass (tumors, bleeding).
- Can lead to brain herniation, which is the abnormal protrusion of brain tissue through rigid barriers.
Common Brain Alterations
- Brain Tumors: Compression of nearby tissues, increased ICP.
- Stroke: Ischemic (blood flow blockage) vs. Hemorrhagic (bleeding).
- Cerebral Aneurysm: Weakness in blood vessel walls, potential for rupture.
- Infections: Meningitis (inflammation of protective membranes), encephalitis (infection of brain tissue), brain abscess (localized infection).
- Hydrocephalus: Excess cerebrospinal fluid causing harmful pressure on brain tissues.
Neurological Conditions
- Cerebral Palsy: Muscle coordination issues due to brain damage; can be caused by genetic factors, hypoxia, or ischemia.
- Parkinson's Disease: Degeneration of dopamine-producing neurons; leads to movement difficulties, rigidity, and balance issues.
- Huntington's Disease: Genetic neurodegenerative disorder; causes chorea (involuntary movements) and cognitive decline.
- Dementia: Progressive intellectual decline affecting daily functioning; can arise from various causes including vascular issues and infections.
Specific Neurological Disorders
- Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS): Progressive degeneration of motor neurons. Cognition largely intact while motor functions decline leading to muscle wasting.
- Multiple Sclerosis (MS): Autoimmune demyelination of neurons; symptoms include vision and mobility issues, weakness, and loss of coordination.
- Myasthenia Gravis: Autoimmune disorder causing muscle weakness due to antibodies affecting acetylcholine receptors at neuromuscular junctions.### Signs and Symptoms of Neurological Disorders
- Muscle weakness may manifest in the face, eyes, arms, and trunk.
- Impaired speech and vision can occur alongside difficulties in chewing and swallowing.
- Symptoms may include head drooping and an increased frequency of upper respiratory infections.
Guillain-Barré Syndrome
- An inflammatory condition affecting the parasympathetic nervous system where the immune system attacks nerves.
- Symptoms include numbness, tingling, muscle weakness, and potential progression to paralysis.
- Recovery occurs spontaneously; supportive care is essential during recovery.
Spina Bifida
- A neural tube defect resulting in incomplete formation of the spine and spinal cord.
- Characterized by failure of posterior spinous processes to fuse, leading to herniation of the meninges and spinal cord.
- Diagnosis includes elevated alpha-fetoprotein (AFP) levels and ultrasound imaging.
- Surgical repair is the primary treatment, followed by occupational and physical therapy.
Alterations in Pupil Responses
- Pupil dilation and constriction rely on an intact brainstem; hypoxia and certain drugs can alter pupil size and reactivity.
- Pinpoint pupils indicate opiate (heroin) overdose; fixed and dilated pupils suggest severe hypoxia.
- Bilaterally fixed pupils can occur with barbiturate overdose, whereas brainstem injury may present with pupils fixed in the mid-position.
Disorders of Retinal Blood Supply
- The central retinal artery supplies blood to the inner retina; choroidal vessels support rods and cones.
- Central retinal artery occlusion can lead to unilateral blindness due to interrupted blood flow.
- Retinopathies disrupt blood flow to visual receptors, causing visual impairments.
- Retinal detachment separates visual receptors from their blood supply, leading to visual dysfunction.
Disorders of the Middle Ears
- Otitis Media involves inflammation of the middle ears, often linked to acute infections or fluid accumulation.
- Acute otitis media (AOM) and otitis media with effusion (OME) are common forms.
- Hearing loss may result from perforated tympanic membranes or impaired conduction due to fluid presence or ossicle dysfunction (otosclerosis).
- The Eustachian tube, continuous with the nasopharynx, may allow pathogens to enter and cause middle ear infections.
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Description
Explore the pathophysiologic disruptions in neurosensory and integrative functions. This quiz covers alterations in brain functions and their implications on medical practice. Test your understanding of the key concepts outlined in Topic 9 of NBMS2402.
