Pathophysiology of Inflammation

Inflammation

• Inflammation is a protective response to eliminate the initial cause of cell injury, diluting, destroying, and neutralizing harmful agents, removing damaged tissue, and generating new tissue.
• The classic signs of inflammation include:
  • Redness (rubor)
  • Swelling (tumor)
  • Heat (calor)
  • Pain or discomfort (dolor)
  • Loss of function (functio laesa)
• Causes of inflammation can be either exogenous (mechanical, physical, chemical, biological) or endogenous (circulatory disorder, hypoxia, endogenous protease release, immunocomplex formation).
• Acute inflammatory response involves immediate vascular changes and influx of inflammatory cells, including neutrophils and monocyte/macrophages.

Wound Healing

• Wound healing is the replacement of destroyed or damaged tissue by newly produced tissue.
• Stages of wound healing include:
  • Hemostasis (blood clotting): platelets stick to the injured site, and blood clotting occurs.
  • Inflammation: damaged and dead cells are cleared out, along with bacteria and other pathogens, through phagocytosis.
  • Proliferation (growth of new tissue): collagen deposition, granulation tissue formation, epithelialization, and wound contraction occur.
  • Maturation (remodeling): collagen is realigned along tension lines, and cells that are no longer needed are removed by programmed cell death.

Thyroid Gland Physiology

• The thyroid gland controls body temperature, how the body burns calories, and how fast food moves through the digestive tract.
• Thyroid hormones (T4-thyroxine) play a crucial role in these processes.
• Iodine is essential for thyroid hormone production, and a deficiency can lead to disorders.

Hyperthyroidism

• Emotional symptoms of hyperthyroidism include:
  • Nervousness
  • Restlessness
  • Anxiety
  • Irritability
  • Sleeplessness or insomnia
• Causes of hyperthyroidism include:
  • Benign nodule on the thyroid
  • Thyroiditis
  • Taking too much synthetic thyroid hormone
• Thyroid storm (crisis) is a sudden onset of symptoms, including fever, tachycardia, and coma.

Graves' Disease

• Graves' disease is an autoimmune condition where the immune system mistakenly attacks the thyroid, causing it to become overactive.
• Characterized by hyperthyroidism and one or more of the following:
  • Goiter
  • Exophthalmos

Type 1 Diabetes

• Pathophysiology: the immune system attacks and destroys the insulin-producing beta cells of the pancreas.

Type 2 Diabetes

• Causes are multifactorial, involving genetic and environmental elements that affect beta-cell function and tissue insulin sensitivity.
• Characterized by insulin resistance, which can lead to insulin deficiency.
• Can begin as insulin resistance, a disorder in which cells do not use insulin properly.

Diabetic Complications

• Complications can include nephropathy, retinopathy, neuropathy, and cardiovascular disease.
• Nephropathy: a major initiator of end-stage renal failure, characterized by proteinuria and reduction in glomerular filtration rate.
• Retinopathy: a major cause of blindness, characterized by vascular permeability changes, capillary degeneration, and abnormal production of blood vessels.
• Neuropathy: destruction of nerves, leading to wound healing impairment.
• Cardiovascular disease: a major cause of death in diabetic patients, equivalent to a previous history of myocardial infarction.

Diabetes Insipidus

• Caused by abnormality in the functioning or levels of antidiuretic hormone (ADH), also known as vasopressin.
• Can be classified into two forms: central (cranial) diabetes insipidus and nephrogenic diabetes insipidus.
• Symptoms include excessive thirst, frequent urination, and pale, diluted urine.

Growth Hormone Deficiency

• Symptoms include:
  • Fatigue
  • Muscle weakness
  • Changes in body fat composition
  • Lack of ambition
  • Social isolation
• In men, symptoms may also include:
  • Erectile dysfunction
  • Decreased facial or body hair
  • Mood changes

Parathyroid Glands

• Responsible for regulating calcium levels in the blood and bones.
• Hyperparathyroidism occurs when one or more parathyroid glands develop a tumor, leading to high calcium levels and symptoms.
• Symptoms of hyperparathyroidism include:
  • Depression
  • Tiredness
  • Feeling thirsty and urinating frequently
  • Feeling sick and losing appetite
  • Muscle weakness
  • Constipation

Neuroblastoma

• A type of cancer that forms in certain types of nerve tissue, often in children under 5 years old.
• Symptoms may include bone pain, a lump in the abdomen, neck, or chest.