Pathophysiology of Hypoxia and Ischemia
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Questions and Answers

What occurs when an artery supplying an organ or part of the body becomes occluded and no other source of blood supply exists?

  • Hypoxia
  • Hypermetabolic state
  • Infarction (correct)
  • Ischemia

    • What is the result of mechanical forces such as body impact with another object?

  • Power failure in the cell
  • Disruption of intracellular calcium homeostasis
  • Impaired oxygen delivery and removal of metabolic end products
  • Injury or trauma to tissue, bones, and blood vessels (correct)

    • What is characterized by impaired oxygen delivery and impaired removal of metabolic end products such as lactic acid?

  • Hypoxia
  • Ischemia (correct)
  • Hypermetabolic state
  • Infarction

    • What is the result of extremes of temperature?

    <p>Damage to the cell, its organelles, and its enzyme systems</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What occurs when cells require more oxygen than can be supplied by normal respiratory function and oxygen transport?

    <p>Hypermetabolic state</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of hypoxia?

    <p>Power failure in the cell</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a type of injury that occurs due to mechanical forces such as body impact with another object?

    <p>Injury from physical agents</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the shape of the infarction that occurs when an artery supplying an organ or part of the body becomes occluded?

    <p>Conical</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of cold exposure on blood vessels?

    <p>Vasoconstriction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of injury from freezing?

    <p>Combination of ice crystal formation and vasoconstriction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of electrical injuries on the body?

    <p>Affects neural and cardiac impulses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Why is alternating current more dangerous than direct current?

    <p>Causes violent muscle contractions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of the body in electrical injuries?

    <p>Conductor of electrical current</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the critical factor in electrical injuries?

    <p>Pathway that the current takes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of current flow through the brain?

    <p>Interrupts impulses from respiratory centers</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of ionizing radiation on cells?

    <p>Causes ionization of molecules and atoms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism by which ionizing radiation causes cell injury?

    <p>By releasing free radicals that destroy cells and directly hitting target molecules</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the most common cause of radiation injury?

    <p>Localized irradiation used in cancer treatment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common source of chemicals capable of causing tissue injury?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the mechanism by which carbon tetrachloride causes liver cell injury?

    <p>Through metabolism by liver enzymes to a highly reactive free radical</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of whole-body irradiation on the body?

    <p>It can cause immediate cell death and genetic mutations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the factor that affects the injurious effects of ionizing radiation?

    <p>Dose and dose rate of the radiation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of corrosive substances on cells?

    <p>They can destroy cells as they come into contact with the body</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the common characteristic of chemicals that can cause cellular injury?

    <p>They can injure cells through various mechanisms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the potential outcome of obesity and diets high in saturated fats?

    <p>Predisposition to atherosclerosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the deficiency of all nutrients and vitamins?

    <p>Starvation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of calcium in the body?

    <p>Important second messenger and cytosolic signal</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of reversible cell injury?

    <p>Impairs cell function but does not result in cell death</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of apoptosis in the body?

    <p>To eliminate injured and aged cells and control tissue regeneration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of liquefaction necrosis?

    <p>It is a type of necrosis that results in the digestion of dead cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main difference between necrosis and apoptosis?

    <p>Necrosis interferes with cell replacement and tissue regeneration, while apoptosis does not</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the shape of the mitochondrial DNA chromosome?

    <p>Circular</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the 13 structural genes in the mitochondrial DNA?

    <p>Encoding subunits of the mitochondrial respiratory chain enzymes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the period of organogenesis in embryonic development?

    <p>Day 15-60 after fertilization</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the acronym TORCH an abbreviation for?

    <p>Toxoplasmosis, Other, Rubella, Cytomegalovirus, Herpes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a teratogenic agent?

    <p>An agent that produces abnormalities during embryonic or fetal life</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a type of teratogenic agent?

    <p>Nutrients</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During which period is the embryo most susceptible to environmental influences?

    <p>Day 15-60 after fertilization</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of environmental influences during the first 2 weeks after fertilization?

    <p>Abortion or early resorption of the products of conception</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary effect of hypoxia on cellular function?

    <p>Impaired oxidative metabolism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of injury is commonly associated with limited blood flow to a specific area?

    <p>Ischemia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of a artery occlusion with no alternative blood supply?

    <p>Infarction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of extreme temperatures on cellular function?

    <p>Cellular damage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of cell injury is characterized by a power failure in the cell?

    <p>Hypoxic injury</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of mechanical forces such as body impact with another object?

    <p>Injury from physical agents</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of a hypermetabolic state?

    <p>Increased oxygen demand</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism by which ionizing radiation causes cell injury?

    <p>By releasing free radicals that destroy cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of ionizing radiation on cells?

    <p>It causes a variety of genetic mutations, which may or may not be lethal</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the most common source of chemicals capable of causing tissue injury?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does carbon tetrachloride cause liver cell injury?

    <p>By metabolizing to a highly reactive free radical</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of corrosive substances on cells?

    <p>They destroy cells as they come into contact with the body</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What determines the injurious effects of ionizing radiation?

    <p>The dose and dose rate of radiation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the common characteristic of chemicals that can cause cellular injury?

    <p>They can damage cells through various mechanisms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of ionizing radiation on cell replication?

    <p>It interrupts cell replication</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is responsible for the actual assembly of biochemical products in a cell?

    <p>RNA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What replaces thymine in RNA and pairs with adenine?

    <p>Uracil</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of genetic assessment and counseling?

    <p>To determine the risk of recurrence of a congenital defect</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the goal of prenatal diagnosis?

    <p>To diagnose whether an unborn child has certain types of abnormalities</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of the formation of a blue lead line along the margins of the gum?

    <p>It is a diagnostic feature of lead poisoning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the process by which RNA is formed from DNA?

    <p>Transcription</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do complementary RNA bases pair with?

    <p>DNA bases</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the abnormal tissue deposition of calcium salts, together with smaller amounts of iron, magnesium, and other minerals?

    <p>Pathologic calcification</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of calcification occurs in dead or dying tissues?

    <p>Dystrophic calcification</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of increased serum calcium levels?

    <p>Metastatic calcification</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a major cause of hypercalcemia?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a malignant cause of hypercalcemia?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a condition that causes jaundice?

    <p>Hyperbilirubinemia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of disorders produce Glycogen accumulations that result in organ dysfunction and other alterations in physiologic function?

    <p>Glycogen storage diseases</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the reversible tissue deposition of calcium salts?

    <p>There is no specific term for reversible tissue deposition of calcium salts.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the approximate frequency of chromosomal anomalies in live births?

    <p>1 in 150</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of creating a family pedigree?

    <p>To identify genetic disorders</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of single-gene mutations on lifespan?

    <p>It increases lifespan by up to 65%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the probability of inheriting a dominant genetic disorder from an affected parent?

    <p>50%</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for a dominant mutant allele that fails to exhibit the associated phenotype?

    <p>Reduced penetrance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the disorder that causes tumors to develop from the Schwann cells of the neurologic system?

    <p>Neurofibromatosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the consequence of telomere shortening or erosion?

    <p>Organismal aging</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for genetic disorders caused by gene mutations that can be lethal if not treated?

    <p>Inborn errors of metabolism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Cell Injury

    • Hypoxia deprives cells of oxygen, interrupting oxidative metabolism and ATP generation, affecting all cells in the body.
    • Ischemia is characterized by impaired oxygen delivery and removal of metabolic end products, such as lactic acid, commonly affecting blood flow through limited numbers of blood vessels and producing local tissue injury.
    • Hypermetabolic states may require more oxygen than can be supplied by normal respiratory function and oxygen transport, leading to hypoxia.

    Causes of Cell Injury

    Injury from Physical Agents

    • Mechanical forces can cause injury or trauma, splitting and tearing tissue, fracturing bones, injuring blood vessels, and disrupting blood flow.
    • Extremes of temperature can cause damage to cells, organelles, and enzyme systems.
    • Cold exposure increases blood viscosity, induces vasoconstriction, and may lead to hypoxic tissue injury.
    • Electrical injuries can affect the body through extensive tissue injury and disruption of neural and cardiac impulses.
    • The body acts as a conductor of electrical current, which can cause violent muscle contractions, fractures, and dislocations.

    Radiation Injury

    • Ionizing radiation impacts cells by causing ionization of molecules and atoms, releasing free radicals that destroy cells and directly hitting target molecules.
    • Radiation can immediately kill cells, interrupt cell replication, or cause genetic mutations.
    • Most radiation injury is caused by localized irradiation used in cancer treatment.

    Chemical Injury

    • Chemicals capable of damaging cells are present in air and water pollution, tobacco smoke, and certain foods.
    • Chemical agents can injure cell membranes, block enzymatic pathways, coagulate cell proteins, and disrupt osmotic and ionic balance.
    • Corrosive substances can destroy cells, while other chemicals may injure cells during metabolism or elimination.

    Apoptosis (Programmed Cell Death)

    • Apoptosis is a highly selective process that eliminates injured and aged cells, controlling tissue regeneration.
    • Two basic pathways for apoptosis exist: the extrinsic pathway, which is death receptor dependent, and the intrinsic pathway, which is death receptor-independent.

    Types of Necrosis

    • Liquefaction necrosis:

    Period of Vulnerability

    • The embryo's development is most easily disturbed during organogenesis, which extends from day 15 to day 60 after conception.
    • Environmental influences during the first 2 weeks after fertilization may interfere with implantation, resulting in abortion or early resorption of the products of conception.

    Genetic and Congenital Disorders

    • Infectious agents, such as those in the TORCH group, can cross the placenta and enter the fetal circulation, producing multiple malformations.
    • Teratogenic agents, including radiation, chemicals, drugs, and infectious organisms, can produce abnormalities in the developing embryo.

    Causes of Cell Injury

    • Hypoxia deprives cells of oxygen, interrupting oxidative metabolism and ATP generation
    • Ischemia impairs oxygen delivery and removes metabolic end products, leading to local tissue injury
    • Hypermetabolic states can cause cells to require more oxygen than normal respiratory function can supply
    • Hypoxia causes a power failure in cells, affecting structural and functional components
    • Infarction occurs when an artery becomes occluded, causing tissue death, typically with a conical shape corresponding to the affected artery's distribution

    Physical Agents of Cell Injury

    • Mechanical forces can cause injury or trauma, split or tear tissue, fracture bones, and disrupt blood flow
    • Extremes of temperature can release free radicals that destroy cells and directly hit target molecules, causing cell death, interrupted replication, or genetic mutations
    • Radiation injury varies with dose, dose rate, and tissue sensitivity
    • Ionizing radiation can immediately kill cells, interrupt cell replication, or cause genetic mutations

    Chemical Agents of Cell Injury

    • Chemicals capable of damaging cells are present in air and water pollution, tobacco smoke, and processed or preserved foods
    • Chemicals can injure cell membranes, block enzymatic pathways, coagulate proteins, and disrupt osmotic and ionic balance
    • Corrosive substances like strong acids and bases can destroy cells on contact
    • Carbon tetrachloride is extremely toxic to liver cells

    Pathologic Calcifications

    • Dystrophic calcification occurs in dead or dying tissues, involving the macroscopic deposition of calcium salts
    • Metastatic calcification occurs in normal tissues due to increased serum calcium levels, often in the lung, renal tubules, and blood vessels

    Lead Poisoning

    • A blue lead line along the gum margins is a diagnostic feature of lead poisoning

    Genetic Control of Cell Function

    • RNA assembles amino acids into functional proteins in the ribosome through translation
    • Messenger RNA is formed from DNA through transcription
    • Complementary RNA bases pair with DNA bases, with uracil replacing thymine to pair with adenine

    Pediatric Considerations

    • 1 in 150 live births have chromosomal anomalies causing cognitive impairment and birth defects
    • Inborn errors of metabolism can be lethal if not treated, prompting mandatory newborn screening in many states
    • Creating a family pedigree can help identify genetic disorders and is useful for genetic counseling

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    Module 1 NUR 529.docx

    Description

    This quiz covers the concepts of hypoxia and ischemia, including their effects on cellular metabolism and ATP generation, as well as the differences between pure hypoxia and ischemia.

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