Pathology First Exam 2024 Material

A defect present at birth, although it may not be noticeable until later in life.

A defect caused by events after birth.

The cause of a disease, grouped as congenital or acquired.

The sequence of events from initial contact with a disease's cause to its manifestation.

The structural form of cells and tissues.

Signs and symptoms of a disease.

Subjective complaints felt by the patient, like pain or dizziness.

Objective observations, such as a fever or rash, made by someone else.

The number of new cases of a disease in a population during a specific time period.

The total number of cases (new and existing) of a disease in a population at a particular time.

Statistics on deaths from a particular disease during a specific time.

Statistics on the functional effects of a disease on a person's life.

Increase in the size of cells, leading to an increase in organ size, not cell count.

Hypertrophy due to normal stimulation, like pregnancy.

Hypertrophy caused by disease conditions, like high blood pressure.

Steady state that cells normally maintain.

Damage to cells and tissues caused by exposure to harmful substances.

Harmful effects of lead buildup in the body, affecting red blood cells, digestive system, kidneys, and nervous system.

Invasion and harm caused by bacteria, often through toxins or cell destruction.

Unstable molecules that damage cells by stealing electrons, leading to cell injury.

Insufficient oxygen supply to cells, leading to energy depletion and potential cell death.

Imbalance in calcium levels within cells, leading to malfunction and potential damage.

Insufficient or excessive intake of nutrients, leading to various health problems.

Lack of essential vitamins, often due to poor diet or absorption issues.

Hypertrophy can be caused by increased workload, hormonal stimulation, and certain growth factors.

An increase in the number of cells in an organ or tissue, usually occurring in tissues with cells that are capable of dividing.

Hyperplasia can be physiological (normal) or pathological (abnormal). Physiological hyperplasia includes hormonal hyperplasia and compensatory hyperplasia. Pathological hyperplasia is often caused by excessive hormonal or growth factor stimulation.

A decrease in the size of cells and organs due to loss of cell substance. Atrophied cells are not dead but have diminished function.

Common causes of atrophy include decreased workload, loss of innervation, diminished blood supply, inadequate nutrition, loss of endocrine stimulation, and aging.

Atrophy is caused by a combination of decreased protein synthesis and increased protein degradation. Autophagy (self-eating) also plays a role.

Cells that have undergone changes but have the potential to recover if the stress or injury is removed.

Programmed cell death, a normal process that eliminates unwanted or damaged cells in a controlled manner.

Apoptosis initiated by external signals like death receptors (TNF receptors, FasL receptors) on the cell surface.

Apoptosis initiated by internal signals, primarily mitochondrial damage, leading to cytochrome c release.

Proteolytic enzymes (protein-cutting enzymes) essential for apoptosis, present in cells as inactive procaspases.

Caspases that activate the apoptotic cascade, like caspase-8 in the extrinsic pathway.

Caspases that carry out the final steps of apoptosis, like caspase-3, by cleaving proteins and dismantling the cell.

Uncontrolled cell growth and proliferation, leading to the formation of a tumor or neoplasm.

An abnormal mass of cells arising from uncontrolled overgrowth, typically due to neoplasia.

When the membrane surrounding the mitochondria is damaged, it impairs ATP production leading to cell death (necrosis).

Damage to the outer layer of the cell disrupts osmotic balance, allows fluids and ions to enter uncontrollably, and leads to loss of valuable cellular components, causing cell death.

Damage to lysosomes, which contain digestive enzymes, releases these enzymes into the cell, triggering the breakdown of cellular components and leading to cell death.

Causes like radiation and oxidative stress can damage DNA beyond repair, leading to cell death (apoptosis).

Inherited mutations or external triggers like free radicals can cause protein misfolding. This build-up triggers cell death (apoptosis).

Ischemia refers to reduced blood flow, causing faster and more severe tissue damage than hypoxia, which is a lack of oxygen. Both lead to decreased ATP production and cellular death.

Restoring blood flow to ischemic tissue can surprisingly lead to further cell death because of increased ROS production and inflammatory response.

Chemicals can cause cell injury by directly binding to vital cell components or by generating damaging free radicals.