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• Inclusive term describing living systems' aspects: genetic, species, & ecosystem diversity, wildlife.

Three Main Levels of Biodiversity

• Genetic Diversity: Differences in genes within a species.
• Species Diversity: Variety of species, e.g., polar bears & peanuts.
• Ecosystem Diversity: Variety of ecosystems, e.g., coral reefs & rainforests.

Reasons for Conservation

• Source of biological resources.
• Biosphere maintenance.
• Ethical, intrinsic, aesthetic value.

Factors Affecting Biodiversity

• Habitat change: Loss, degradation, fragmentation due to agriculture & unsustainable forest management.
• Climate change: Disrupts ecosystems.
• Invasive species: Non-native species harm local ecosystems.
• Over-exploitation: Overuse depletes populations.
• Pollution: Contamination degrades habitats.
• Indirect factors: Economic, demographic, socio-political, cultural, religious, scientific, & technological changes.
• Underlying causes: Defective national & international rules hindering sustainable resource management

International Legal Framework

• Piecemeal Development: Conservation law evolved fragmented, yet species & ecosystems are interdependent
• Conservation of biodiversity - Conservation of biodiversity
• Sustainable use of components - Sustainable use of its components
• Fair & equitable sharing of benefits - Fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising

Treaties and Conventions

• Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) 1992: Framework for international biodiversity action, promoting sustainable development concerning human needs like food & medicine.

CITES (1973)

• Aims to protect flora & fauna from over-exploitation by regulating trade
• Controls trade via licensing for import, export, re-export, & introduction from the sea
• Conference of Parties (COP) established the Standing Committee, Animals Committee, & Plants Committee; COP makes amendments to the Appendices
• Requires parties to not allow trade in species in any Appendices

Appendices

• Appendix I: Species threatened with extinction; trade permitted only in exceptional circumstances
• Appendix II: Species not necessarily threatened but trade must be controlled; commercial trade allowed if not detrimental
• Appendix III: Species protected in at least one country, which has asked for assistance from other CITES parties to control the trade.

Other Conventions

• Precautionary principle: Scientific uncertainty cannot be used as a reason not to act in the best interest of species
• Bonn Convention on Migratory Species (CMS): Aims to conserve terrestrial, aquatic, & avian migratory species; conserves populations including European Bats.
• COP: decision-making body that reviews implementation, budgets, adopts resolutions & recommendations
• Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD): Defines biodiversity as the variability among living organisms from all sources
• Promotes sustainable development, a practical tool for translating Agenda 21 principles.
• Nagoya Protocol: Aims at sharing the benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources in a fair and equitable way, contributing to the conservation of biological diversity and the sustainable use of its components

Ramsar Convention (1971)

• First global instrument protecting habitats, focusing on conserving and enhancing wetlands (areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary. with static or flowing water and can be fresh, brackish or salt)
• Includes all aspects of wetlands conservation
• Costa Rica v. Nicaragua (2011): ICJ provided provisional measures in a dispute involving a wetland area
• World Heritage Convention (1972): Uses a listing approach similar to Ramsar for cultural and other natural heritage
• UNESCO Man & Biosphere Program (MAB): Uses biosphere reserves for innovative conservation approaches, with the Seville Strategy adopting CBD's ecosystem approach
• UN Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD): Addresses desertification and drought, views land degradation as a sustainable development issue and is people-centered adopted by 191 nations

Forests

• Important ecological functions include providing habitats for biodiversity and maintaining soil quality
• Threats to forests include habitat conversion, legal and illegal logging, and habitat fragmentation
• Tropical forests constitute 7% of the land surface, contain more than 50% of plant and animal species, and are mostly destroyed

Agreements

• International Tropical Timber Agreement (ITTA): Focus on conserving tropical forests and trade in tropical timber, striking a balance for countries that harvest and export timber.
• 1992 Forest Principles: Non-legally binding statement for sustainable management, conservation, and development of all forests
• UN Forum on Forests (UNFF): Promotes international agreements' implementation on forests
• Collaborative Partnership on Forests (CPF): Voluntary arrangement among 14 international organizations with programs on forests
• Committee on Forests (COFO): States have the right to exploit resources but also have the responsibility to not damage other states

Other Environmental Factors

• Soil is the top layer of earth's crust, the basis for ag production & food supply.
• Soil Degradation: Results in reduced capacity to support human life + Soil degradation impacts human health, economies, ecosystems, and climate
• Desertification and drought, sustainable development + Promotes community participation at the local level
• Plant & Plant Genetic Resources - Important for food security & sustainable agriculture.

International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (ITPGRFA)

• Focuses on fair/equitable benefit sharing; recognizes farmers' rights
• Aims to preserve plant genetic resources
• Addresses the recognition of intellectual property rights (IP) by CBD and ITPGRFA
• Key Principle: Sustainable Development - Meet the need for this generation without compromising future generations

Other Key Principles

• State Sovereignty: States have rights over their biological resources but also the responsibility to conserve them
• Flora & fauna is to be protected In-situ conservation, Respect, preserve maintence of knowledge, innovation and practices of indigenuous and local communities
• Ozone: Protection of the Earth's atmosphere
• Atmospheric pollution is caused by noxious gaseous substances that contaminate the atmosphere + cause deaths, damage, diseases etc.

Ozone Layer Depletion

• Ozone depletion results because of anthropogenic gases like CFCs + Efforts to combat ozone depletion, monitoring and reduction of ozone-depleting gases.
• Climate Change = natural Greenhouse effect is beneficial for all Earth but as a result of co2 emmisions from industrialization behaviour change is a requirement
• International Regulations e.g Convention on Long-range + Montreal protocol + UNFCCC and agreements like Paris agreements all try to minimise climate change
• Multi lateral environment agreements and co-orperation can help control environmental disasters like air population - UNFCCC has established the 'No harm policy" as a result

Cases

• Cases such as the Trail smelter case led to the principles on pollution, the " good neighbour princible" and obligation. As well a well pollution control in Tennessee

Issues and Problems

• The "air's" intangible nature makes it hard to monitor and control and that pollution needs more co orperation from countries.

The Ocean and its Resources (Marine)

• Covers Earth's surface + life and climate controller + vital mineral and energy source + source of food for many
• Coastal pollution is the principle threat and this has implications with overfishing, habitat loss, climate change e.c.t
• Eutrophication results from nutrients releases, invasive species can alter habitats and co2 absorbtion causes oceans to be damaging to coral reefs + chemical waste and industrial waste all contributing to marine issues
• 80% of pollution comes from land by air (pesticides dusts)

Waste Marine issues include:

• Nutrient overly and toxic metals as well as waste dumping (mining etc) cause marine to be affected and destroyed at and alarming rate

Other Types of Marine Issues

• NOs and SOs have shipping issues + acidification with CO2 absorbtion
• Substances that destroy ozone e.c.t as well as spilling oil and plastic waste both destroying wild life
• Rising sea levels from global warming also contribute to destruction

Eutrophicsion and issues

• Excess Nutrients which lead to plant growth dying creating death due to algal growth and using up o2 + killing aquatically wildlife: (Benethic Animals, Deposit Feeders and Filter feeders

Legal frame UNCLOS helps protect bodies of water

• Signed by 161 states including US in 1994 + preventions and regulations etc
• Focus on regulation, reduce harm and regulations as well as recognising types of water pollusion
• Provides a legal order by promoting communication and peace for bodies of water especially in relation to pollution and preservation

UN measures that help prevent danger

• The UN help and emphasis for better coast protection through conferences like the Brundtland report and the Torrey Canyon where measure's where high lighting from green house gases, environmental damage, climate change and use of nuclear energy

Marine Treaties

• The LDC was used as a principle to try and prevent waste but was banned again in 1983
• Agenda 21 has also tried to get involved with the declaration of key principles on environmental protection
• Other groups and treatys like UNFCCC are trying to make sure the oceans and marine environments have sustainable management with Co operation

Treaties to maintain marine saftey:

• There are numerous treaties and organisations to try and maintain marine saftey and reduce pollutions like UN stock agreement, ILO and IMOs including SOLAS , MAROPOL and STCW

International Treaties

• ITLOS and many other systems or orgnaisations also try and assist with making court judgements on the matter but unfortantlly there is a lack in the marine pollution

Types of pollution

• There are different type of pollution from ships where the deliberate discharge waste , this is where leading instruments like MAROPOL step in as long as governments co orperate
• Air pollution in where Unclos and paris convention co orperate to limit air pollution around source bases Plastic population is where high product is used by 10 % so measures and enforcements needed to implemented to stop this waste. This is where conventions come into play

Freshwater resouces

• This essential for earth connection ecosystem, land , water and people+ vital agriculture , energy, factories, homes as well as floods
• There is a limited amount of freshwater which is being effected by climate change and populating in making it a scare resource

Some impacts of limited freshwater

• Some affects are that some areas extract the water unsustainably drying ecosystems and poluting them
• In-suffienct supply as well as pollution and climate charge all have massive impacts

Water crisis problems

• Some issues for humans is that billon of people lack water due to water overdrafting, over use that cause resource battles which further contaminates supplies. In short 30 countries are struggling to meet resource to 60 struggling to meet resource

Issues for the use of freshwater

• Industrial waste can make the situation much worse like agricultural as a waste + salt used on raods + gases creating pollutions and then seeping into supplies
• Point source and non point are major reason for contention in supply.

Types of Freshwater

• There are many differwn forms such organic matter and contaminates and a big one is the salinity and effects that the environment and agriculture.

Legal

The un has started some legal framework which help manage the issues surrounding freshwater and pollution

Principles

TEI is a major principle that relates to damage to states for how it affects resources within boarders including over control to a water source or down state

Cases

The river ore case and musses r. are important cases in this situation

Way forward

There is numerous amount of ways to help stop freshwater pollution including using water sustainable

Definition Hazordous

Is waste material if not handled properly can and will impact human lifed safety and the environment+ Primarily generated by chemical production, manufacturing, and other industrial activities

Issues surrounding Hazordous waste

• Improper storage will always pollutes supplies and the local vulnerable are people living close site + Governments Closely regulate to help
• These include Toxic, Reactive, Ignitable and corosrive

Hazordous impact

Hazordous waste leads to a dramatic increase and it's volume in volume in developing countries costing nearly 50% to spend on in effort to stop the issue

• International Law e.c.t is addressing these issues and are particularly dangerous substances OECD AND UN are are playing roles for laws and implementations to control the issues

Contention for hazordous waste

The Basel connection try's to implement haz waste control in the hopes of stopping pollution and waste. ( This is because some wastes lead to disposal in other areas leading to contamination.)

Basel and problems

The Eu is following certain standards like having to apply and be consent before transporting wastes, there are also classifications for hazardous waste. In effort to stop it

Other important conventions

These have all been designed in effort to stop harm in some the major countries effected by it

Policies to prevent hazzordous waste

The EU has certain guide lines that implement how to tackle the situations some being Prevention of waste through product and process design as well as recycling when possible

Issues surrounding sound