Organizational Research Paradigms

Basic Research vs. Applied Research

• Basic research, also known as fundamental or pure research, focuses on expanding knowledge without a direct practical application. It aims to understand underlying principles or mechanisms.
• Purpose: Contribute to the broader knowledge base of business and management, and develop universal principles and theoretical frameworks explaining processes and their outcomes.
• Key characteristics: Primarily conducted in academic settings; topic selection driven by curiosity or theoretical gaps; typically flexible timeframes; initial impact mainly on academic communities, but can influence policies and practices.
• Example: A study exploring how organizational culture evolves over time without an immediate, specific solution-focused problem in mind.

Applied Research

• Applied research focuses on addressing specific practical problems. It aims to produce actionable solutions beneficial to practitioners and organizations.
• Purpose: Solve particular business or management issues, and create knowledge with immediate relevance for practitioners (e.g., managers or policymakers).
• Key characteristics: Conducted in diverse settings, including academic institutions and organizations; Objectives are often negotiated with stakeholders; operations within tight timeframes to meet practical needs; initial impact on policy and practice communities, although it may later contribute to academia.
• Example: A study exploring how to improve employee engagement in a specific organization, offering actionable recommendations.

Epistemology, Ontology, and Axiology

• Epistemology: The assumptions researchers make about knowledge--what is acceptable, valid, and legitimate knowledge, and how knowledge is communicated (nature of knowledge).
• Epistemology Key Features:
  • Explores if knowledge is derived from observable facts (positivist), or subjective interpretations (interpretivist).
  • Guides research methods; positivist research might use structured surveys, while interpretivist research would use qualitative interviews.
• Ontology: Assumptions researchers make about the nature of reality (what exists and nature of being). Key dimensions include:
  • Objectivism: Reality exists independently of individuals.
  • Subjectivism: Reality is socially constructed by individuals and is fluid and dynamic.
• Axiology: Examines the role of values and ethics in the research process; how researchers handle their own values and those of participants. Key aspects include:
  • Whether research is value-free (objective) or value-laden (subjective).
  • How researchers reflect on and articulate their values in conducting and reporting research.

Research Paradigms

• Positivism: Stance of natural sciences emphasizing observable, measurable phenomena to establish generalizable laws.
• Positivism Ontology: Reality is real, external, and objective. A singular "true reality" exists separate from human perceptions.
• Positivism Epistemology: Focuses on observable facts and causal relationships. Emphasizes law-like generalizations using deductive methods.
• Positivism Axiology: Values are excluded from research to maintain objectivity; researchers are neutral and detached.
• Positivism Methodology: Typically deductive using quantitative methods like experiments, surveys, statistical analyses; research is highly structured to ensure replicability.
• Critical Realism: Developed as a response to positivism, exploring deeper structures and causal mechanisms shaping observable events.
• Interpretivism: Exploring how individuals and groups make sense of their organizational realities—reality is socially constructed and subjective, shaped by cultural and personal contexts; seeks to uncover meanings and lived experiences.
• Radical Humanist Paradigm: Critiques existing societal and organizational norms, aiming to empower individuals. Focuses on liberation, challenges power dynamics, and explores how meanings are socially constructed.
• Radical Structuralist Paradigm: Analyzes structural conflicts and advocates for transformative change in organizational systems. Combines objectivism with radical change, emphasizing systemic oppression and structural power analysis.
• Pragmatism: Emphasizes practical outcomes and usefulness of knowledge; reality is shaped by practical consequences, multiple realities exist (context-dependent).
• Pragmatism Methodology: Flexible; uses mixed or multiple methods (qualitative and quantitative); adapts to the problem at hand; aims for actionable strategies.
• Postmodernism: Critiques traditional notions of objectivity and challenges dominant ideologies, emphasizing marginalized perspectives.
• Postmodernism Ontology: Reality is complex, fluid, and shaped by power relations; multiple, unstable realities exist.
• Postmodernism Epistemology: Knowledge is constructed through language and shaped by dominant ideologies; challenges the idea of universal truth.
• Postmodernism Axiology: Researcher reflexivity is stressed; researchers acknowledge their role in power dynamics and their own biases.

Research Designs (Qual & Quant)

• Exploratory: Exploring a relatively unknown subject, asking "what" and "why" open-ended questions. Usually involves collecting data and constructing theories (deductive or inductive).
• Descriptive: Describing characteristics of a phenomenon or group. Focus on "what" and may look for relationships (e.g., survey of employee satisfaction).
• Explanatory: Explaining "why" or "how" a phenomenon occurs. Used in studies focusing on cause-and-effect relationships.
• Case study: Involves in-depth study of a single case (organization, person, etc.) to understand the complexities of a phenomenon within a specific context.
• Experiments: Testing hypotheses by manipulating variables under controlled conditions and measuring effects. Often focuses on cause-and-effect.
• Surveys: Collecting data from a large sample through structured questionnaires. Useful for describing attitudes, opinions, and behaviors.
• Archival/Documentary: Using existing records to obtain information about a phenomenon or topic over time.
• Ethnography: Researcher immerses themselves in another culture or organizational context.
• Focus groups: Facilitated discussion among a small group of people to explore their views and perceptions on a subject.
• Observations: Systematic watching and recording of behavior in natural settings. Can be participant (involved) or non-participant (detached).
• Grounded theory: Developing theories from data collected; not testing pre-existing theories.

Data Collection Methods

• Questionnaires: Pre-determined questions used to collect structured data (e.g., survey).
• Interviews: Conversations between researcher and participant that elicit detailed information about attitudes and perspectives. Can be structured, semi-structured, or unstructured.
• Focus groups: Guided group discussions exploring perspectives.
• Observation: Directly watching and documenting actions and behaviors.
• Secondary data: Pre-existing data already collected not for the current study (e.g., published research, historical records).

Sampling Techniques

• Probability sampling: Each member of the population has a known, non-zero chance of selection (randomly chosen).
• Non-probability sampling: Does NOT guarantee each member has an equal chance of selection (non-random).
  • Purposive sampling: Selecting participants based on the researcher's judgment of relevance.
  • Convenience sampling: Choosing participants who are readily available.
  • Snowball sampling: Participants recruit others (e.g., to identify hard-to-reach groups).

Research Ethics

• Respect for participants—treat with dignity and respect.
• Informed consent—full understanding of research.
• Confidentiality and anonymity—protecting participant identities
• Avoidance of harm—minimize any potential harm to participants.
• Right to withdraw—participants have the right to withdraw from the research.
• Ethical data use and reporting—honest and accurate reporting of findings, no misleading or selective results.
• Respect for vulnerable groups—additional care for certain groups (e.g., children, people with disabilities).
• Compliance with legal and institutional requirements—following laws and regulations.
• Ethical considerations in data storage and security—safeguarding data.

Qualitative vs Quantitative Research

• Qualitative: Focuses on understanding subjective experiences and perceptions, often relying on flexible data collection methods; small sample sizes, and detailed, non-numerical data; inductive (building theory from data).
• Quantitative: Measuring variables and testing hypotheses; large sample sizes, numerical data, structured collection methods; deductive (testing existing theories).

This quiz covers different paradigms in organizational research, including Radical Structuralist, Radical Humanist, and Interpretive perspectives. It also tests understanding of critical reflection, qualitative research credibility, and the role of subjective realities.