Organic Compounds and Macromolecules

Organic Compounds

• Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids are organic compounds that make up living things

Carbohydrates

• Made up of monosaccharides and provide short-term energy
• Stored as starch in plants and glycogen in animals

Cellulose

• Makes the cell walls of plant cells rigid

Proteins

• Made of amino acids and build traits

Enzymes

• Proteins that speed up chemical reactions by lowering activation energy
• Function is affected by pH, temperature, and substrate concentration
• Substrate specific and reusable
• During a reaction, the substrate temporarily binds to the active site

Hemoglobin

• Protein in red blood cells carries oxygen

Lipids

• Consist of one glycerol and three fatty acids, provide long-term energy

DNA Nucleotides

• Sequence codes for specific amino acids to form proteins

Plasma membrane

• Selectively regulates material flow in and out of the cell

Cell Wall

• Provides a rigid outer layer of protection for the cell

Chloroplasts

• Capture light energy for photosynthesis

Vacuoles

• Storage compartments in the cell, larger in plant cells

Mitochondria

• Responsible for energy production in the cell

Increased Surface Area

• Achieved through folded membranes, enhances efficiency

Ribosomes

• Protein synthesis sites

Eukaryotes

• Complex cells with membrane-bound organelles

Prokaryotes

• Unicellular organisms lacking membrane-bound organelles (e.g., bacteria)
• Contain naked/circular DNA in a plasmid

Stem cells

• Unspecialized cells that differentiate by activating/deactivating DNA

Cell differentiation

• All cells have the same DNA, but expression differs

Homeostasis

• Maintains a constant internal environment

Plasma membrane

• Composed of a phospholipid bilayer

Active transport

• Movement of particles from low to high concentration with ATP use

Passive transport

• Movement of particles from high to low concentration without ATP use

Diffusion

• Passive transport of solutes

Osmosis

• Passive transport of water

Photosynthesis

• Water and carbon dioxide, with light, produce glucose and oxygen

Aerobic Cellular Respiration

• Oxygen and glucose are used to create ATP

Anaerobic Cellular Respiration

• Occurs without oxygen, yields less ATP, lactic acid or ethanol

Cell Cycle

• Includes G1, S, G2, mitosis, and cytokinesis stages

DNA Organization

• DNA coils into chromosomes within the cell nucleus

Gene

• DNA segment that codes for a protein

DNA Replication

• Allows daughter cells to have identical copies of parental DNA

Mitosis

• Cell division producing two identical diploid (2n) daughter cells, asexual reproduction in unicellular organisms and growth in multicellular organisms

Cancer

• Caused by errors in enzyme production leading to overproduction

Protein Synthesis

• Based on the sequence of amino acids

Transcription

• Produces an mRNA copy of DNA in the nucleus

Translation

• Occurs at the ribosome, tRNA delivers amino acids to create a polypeptide (protein)

Amino acids

• Linked by peptide bonds

Mutations

• Changes in the DNA code, heritable in offspring if in gametes

Gel Electrophoresis

• Separates DNA segments by size for analysis

PCR

• Creates many copies of a small DNA sample

Biotechnology

• Uses organisms/products to improve health and food production

Transgenic Organisms

• Contain DNA from another species

Human Genome Project

• Identified and sequenced all human chromosomes

Asexual Reproduction

• Involves one parent without genetic variation

Sexual Reproduction

• Involves two parents, offspring have genetic variation

Meiosis

• Cell division producing four haploid (n) gametes for genetic variation

Zygote

• Fertilized egg

Homologous Chromosomes

• Pairs of chromosomes expressing the same traits

Nondisjunction

• Chromosomes fail to separate during meiosis

Crossing Over

• Exchange of homologous chromosome parts during meiosis

Homozygous alleles

• The same

Heterozygous alleles

• Different

Genetic Representation

• Genotype shows genes present

Physical Expression

• Phenotype shows genes present

Polygenic traits

• Controlled by multiple genes, variety of phenotypes are shown

Sex-linked Traits

• Occur in males more frequently and are found on the X chromosome

Human Sex Chromosomes

• Females are XX andmales are XY

Karyotype

• Shows gender and chromosomal abnormalities

Early Earth Atmosphere

• Contained water vapor, carbon dioxide, ammonia, methane, no oxygen

Abiogenesis

• Life arises from non-living things

Biogenesis

• Only life makes life

First Organisms

• Prokaryotes that were anaerobic and heterotrophic

Common Ancestry

• Evidenced by fossil data, anatomy, and biochemical likeness

Natural Selection

• Most fit organisms can survive and reproduce

Speciation

• Results from geographic and reproductive isolation

Antibiotic/Pesticide Resistance

• Results from natural selection with overuse

Vaccines

• Dead or weakened pathogens induce active immunity

Antibiotics

• Breakdown prokaryotic cells

Species

• Organisms that can mate and produce fertile offspring

Binomial Nomenclature

• Uses genus and species names to identify an organism

Dichotomous Key

• Classifies organisms based on physical characteristics

Phylogenetic Trees

• Compare organisms in terms of relatedness and time

Bacterial Reproduction

• Binary fission and conjugation

Protist Characteristics

• Eyespots, contractile vacuoles, cilia, flagella, and pseudopodia

Root Hairs

• Increase surface area for water and mineral absorption

Xylem

• Vascular tissue transports water up from roots to leaves

Phloem

• Vascular tissue transports sugars from leaves down the plant

Transpiration

• Water loss from plant leaves

Angiosperms

• Flowering plants

Gymnosperms

• Non-flowering plants

Cuticle

• The waxy plant layer prevents water loss

Phylum Chordata

• Vertebrates such as fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals

Innate behaviors

• Genetically inherited from parents

Pheromones

• Chemical scents used for animal communication

Courtship Behaviors

• Required to attract and select a mate before reproduction

Carbon Cycle

• Carbon dioxide is cycled in the atmosphere

Global Warming

• Excess carbon dioxide and greenhouse gases trap the sun's heat

Nitrogen Fixation

• Bacteria convert nitrogen gas to a solid for plant use

Food Chain Energy Transfer

• 10% of energy is transferred

Mutualism

• Relationship benefits both organisms

Parasitism

• Relationship benefits one organism

Competition

• Occurs over low resources

Carrying Capacity

• Maximum population size an ecosystem can support

Bioaccumulation

• Top consumer accumulates the most chemical in a food chain

Invasive Species

• Outcompetes native species, reduces diversity

Eutrophication

• Overproduction of autotrophs due to excess nitrogen

Sustainability

• Using resources so they are available in the future