Organic Chemistry: Amino Acids and Proteins

A type of isomer where compounds have the same arrangement of atoms, but different spatial arrangements of their bonds. There are two forms: E/Z isomerism and optical isomerism.

A type of stereoisomerism where different atoms or groups are bonded to the carbon atoms of a double bond. The E-isomer has atoms or groups opposite each other, while the Z-isomer has them on the same side of the double bond.

A molecule that contains a center of chirality, commonly a carbon atom bonded to four different atoms or groups. The molecule's mirror image cannot be superimposed on the original.

Optical isomers that rotate the plane of polarized light in opposite directions. One isomer rotates the plane to the left (levo-rotatory) and the other to the right (dextrorotatory).

The ability of a molecule to rotate the plane of polarized light. This property is exhibited by molecules with a chiral center.

A type of stereoisomerism where molecules have the same molecular formula and the same sequence of atoms but differ in the spatial arrangement of their atoms due to restricted rotation around a double bond. E/Z isomerism is a subcategory of this type.

A compound that contains a carbon atom bonded to four different atoms or groups. These compounds exhibit optical isomerism.

The ability of a substance to rotate the plane of polarized light. This is observed in molecules that contain a chiral center.

A group of atoms that are responsible for absorbing light at a specific wavelength, and that is essential for color in molecules.

A chemical reaction that occurs when a benzenediazonium ion reacts with an aromatic compound containing an electron-rich group like -OH or -NH2. The resulting molecule has a -N=N- (azo) group linking two benzene rings.

The color of a compound is determined by the wavelength of light it absorbs. The color we see is the complementary color to the one absorbed. For example, if a compound absorbs blue light, it will appear orange.

Phenol is produced when benzenediazonium compounds decompose above 10 degrees Celsius. This reaction resembles the decomposition of aliphatic amines.

Benzenediazonium salts are highly reactive and react with phenols and aromatic amines below 10 degrees Celsius. This reaction forms azo dyes, which have the -N=N- (azo) group linking two benzene rings.

A type of reaction where an alkyl group (like methyl or ethyl) is added to a benzene ring by replacing a hydrogen atom. It uses a halogenoalkane and a catalyst like aluminium chloride.

A reaction where a nucleophile (like OH-) replaces a halogen atom in a molecule. This is common for chloroalkanes.

A reaction where electrons are added to a molecule, like an aldehyde or ketone, to form an alcohol. It's a chemical reduction process.

Alcohols with their -OH group attached to a carbon that's connected to only one other carbon atom.

Alcohols with their -OH group attached to a carbon that's connected to two other carbon atoms.

Alcohols with their -OH group attached to a carbon that's connected to three other carbon atoms.

The strength of the bond between the carbon and chlorine atom in chlorobenzene is greater than in chloroalkanes. This makes chlorobenzene more stable and less reactive with nucleophiles.

The reason for the stronger C-Cl bond in chlorobenzene is that the lone pairs on the chlorine atom overlap with the pi electrons in the benzene ring. This makes the bond stronger and less likely to break.

A molecule with both positive and negative charges, typically in a stable, neutral form. It arises when a proton moves from the carboxyl group (-COOH) to the amino group (-NH2) in an amino acid.

The ability of a substance to act as both an acid and a base. Amino acids can donate a proton (acting as an acid) or accept a proton (acting as a base), depending on the pH of the surrounding environment.

A process where two amino acids combine to form a larger molecule, a dipeptide. This involves the removal of a water molecule (condensation reaction).

The repeating link between amino acids in polypeptides and proteins. It's formed by a condensation reaction between the carboxyl group of one amino acid and the amino group of another.

A chain of amino acids linked by peptide bonds. These chains can be short (oligopeptides) or long (polypeptides).

The order of amino acids in a polypeptide chain. This sequence determines the protein's unique shape and function.

Amino acids that the human body can make or obtain from the diet, contributing to the various proteins we need.

The three-dimensional structure of a protein, influencing its biological function. It's determined by the interactions between the amino acid side chains.

A chemical reaction where a carbon chain is added to a benzene ring. Requires a specific carbon chain and a halogen carrier (like AlCl3 or FeCl3) for the reaction to occur.

The process of separating and purifying desired products from a mixture by taking advantage of their different properties, like boiling points or solubility.

A type of isomerism where molecules have the same arrangement of atoms but different spatial arrangements. Their mirror images cannot be superimposed.

A carbon atom bonded to four different groups. This creates a chiral center, leading to optical isomerism.

A chemical reaction where a nitrile is heated with dilute acid to produce a carboxylic acid.

A chemical reaction where an aldehyde is oxidized to a carboxylic acid using an oxidizing agent like acidified potassium dichromate(VI).

A compound with the same molecular formula as another compound but a different arrangement of atoms. It has all five carbon atoms in a straight chain.

A molecule with a chiral center, meaning it has four different atoms or groups bonded to a carbon atom. The molecule and its mirror image cannot be superimposed.

A molecule that has only two different hydrogen environments, as indicated by its NMR spectrum. The two peaks in the spectrum are singlets, meaning each hydrogen environment is not next to another hydrogen.

An isomer with the same structural formula as isomer Q but with the methyl group on the third carbon atom instead of the second.

A spectral technique analyzing the magnetic properties of atomic nuclei, particularly hydrogen nuclei. Its peaks indicate the presence of different hydrogen environments within a molecule, providing information about the structure and bonding of the molecule.

The number of signals in an NMR spectrum corresponds to the number of different hydrogen environments in a molecule.

The splitting pattern of signals in NMR spectroscopy is determined by the number of neighboring hydrogen atoms. For example, a singlet indicates no neighboring hydrogens, a doublet indicates one neighboring hydrogen, a triplet indicates two neighboring hydrogens, and so on.

The chemical shift in NMR spectroscopy refers to the specific position of a signal in the spectrum. Different functional groups and environments influence the chemical shift values. For example, hydrogens attached to a carbonyl group (C=O) typically have a higher chemical shift value than hydrogens attached to an alkyl group (C-H).