Operant Conditioning Principles

• Operant conditioning involves using consequences to modify voluntary behavior, with B.F. Skinner coining the term "operant."

Foundational Theorists and Terminology

• Edward Thorndike's instrumental learning posits that behavior is strengthened by satisfying consequences because behavior is instrumental in producing the outcome.
• Thorndike's Law of Effect states that responses followed by satisfaction are more likely to recur, while those followed by discomfort are less likely.

Skinner Box & Operant Conditioning Concepts

• Positive reinforcement involves adding a pleasant stimulus to increase a behavior, for example, a rat pressing a lever to get a food pellet.
• Negative reinforcement involves removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase a behavior, for example, a lever press stops an electric shock.
• Positive punishment involves adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior, for example, pressing a lever results in a mild shock.
• Negative punishment involves removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior, for example, pressing a lever results in food being taken away.

Research Areas in Operant Conditioning

• Reinforcement can shape creative behavior by rewarding novel responses.
• Superstition may arise when animals associate random behaviors with reinforcement.
• Learned helplessness occurs when exposure to uncontrollable negative events causes passive behavior.
• Learned industriousness suggests that effort itself can become rewarding if individuals are rewarded for persistence.

Pavlovian vs. Operant Conditioning

• Pavlovian (classical) conditioning involves involuntary behavior through associations between stimuli.
• Operant conditioning involves voluntary behavior shaped by consequences.

Factors Influencing Operant Conditioning

• Contingency refers to the clear cause-effect relationship between a behavior and its consequence.
• Contiguity refers to the timing, reinforcement should closely follow behavior to strengthen its influence.
• Reinforcer characteristics like quality, quantity, and novelty affect its strength.
• Some behaviors are easier to condition than others.
• Motivating operations are internal states such as hunger which influence the power of reinforcement.
• Other variables like age, prior learning history, and emotional state can have major bearing on learning.

Inference to Best Explanation (Two-Process vs. One-Process)

• Two-process theory explains escape and avoidance through classical and operant conditioning, but one-process theory may better predict long-term behavior.
• Whether a stimulus acts as a reinforcer or punisher depends on the organism’s learning history, biological needs, and context.
• Motivation changes over time, for instance, food is reinforcing when hungry, but punishing when full.

Theories of Operant Conditioning

• The Premack Principle states that more probable behaviors can reinforce less probable ones.
• This principle explains the variety of reinforcers, but at times struggles to quantify probabilities.
• Drive Reduction (Hull) states that reinforcers reduce biological drives.
• This principle is great for determining basic needs, but can not explain reinforcers like praise.
• Hull- Secondary Reinforcers are determined via associations with drive reduction
• Premack- Secondary Reinforcers are based on relative value

Gestalt vs. Behaviorism

• Gestalt psychology emphasizes insightful problem-solving with "aha!" moments
• Behaviorism emphasizes trial and error.

Key Terms

• Shaping involves reinforcing successive steps toward a goal behavior.
• Chaining involves linking behaviors in sequence.
• Forward chaining starts with the first step and builds forward.
• Backward chaining starts with the last step and builds backward.

Schedules of Reinforcement

• Fixed Ratio (FR) schedules reinforce after a set number of responses.
• Variable Ratio (VR) schedules reinforce after an average number of responses.
• Fixed Interval (FI) schedules reinforce after a set time.
• Variable Interval (VI) schedules reinforce after varied time intervals.

Schedule Effects

• Fixed Ratio schedules have a post-reinforcement pause, a high bursty behavior rate, and fast learning speed.
• Variable Ratio schedules have minimal post-reinforcement pause, and a very high behavior rate with a fast learning speed.
• Fixed Interval schedules have a post-reinforcement pause, a scalloped behavior rate, and moderate learning speed.
• Variable Interval schedules have minimal post-reinforcement pause, a steady moderate behavior rate, and the slowest learning speed.

Partial Reinforcement Theories

• Frustration Hypothesis: Learning to persist despite non-reward is reinforcing.
• Sequential Hypothesis: Memory of rewarded trials among non-rewarded trials sustains behavior
• Response Unit Hypothesis: Grouping of responses explains why fewer rewards still reinforce.
• Discrimination Hypothesis: Harder to detect extinction after partial reinforcement.

Skinner Box – Punishment Examples

• Positive punishment: lever press → shock delivered.
• Negative punishment: lever press → light turns off, no food given.

Punishment Schedules

• Behavior suppression is more likely with immediate, consistent punishment.
• Stronger punishment is more effective, but can be harmful.

Problems with Punishment

• Escape: Learner avoids punishment, not behavior
• Aggression: May model or trigger violence
• Suppression: Stops all behavior, even good ones
• Abuse: Can escalate
• Imitation: Learner may mimic punisher's aggression

Theories of Punishment

• Premack (Punishment): Low-probability behavior can punish high-probability behavior.
• Effective punishment should be immediate, consistent, proportionate, and paired with reinforcement for good behavior.

Alternatives to Punishment (Differential Reinforcement)

• DRA (Differential Reinforcement of Alternative behavior): Reinforce different, acceptable behavior.
• DRI (Differential Reinforcement of Incompatible behavior): Reinforce incompatible behavior.
• DRL (Differential Reinforcement of Low rate): Reinforce a low rate of behavior.