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Questions and Answers
What makes an atom biologically important?
What makes an atom biologically important?
How are the chemical properties of an atom determined?
How are the chemical properties of an atom determined?
How many electrons can the second shell of an atom hold?
How many electrons can the second shell of an atom hold?
What is atomic weight primarily a measure of?
What is atomic weight primarily a measure of?
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What happens to the charge of a neutral atom?
What happens to the charge of a neutral atom?
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Which of the following statements is true regarding isotopes?
Which of the following statements is true regarding isotopes?
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What primarily determines how atoms bond with each other?
What primarily determines how atoms bond with each other?
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What is the atomic number of an element based on?
What is the atomic number of an element based on?
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What distinguishes organic compounds from inorganic compounds?
What distinguishes organic compounds from inorganic compounds?
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Which of the following solutions is classified as acidic?
Which of the following solutions is classified as acidic?
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What is the significance of carbon's affinity for covalent bonding in organic compounds?
What is the significance of carbon's affinity for covalent bonding in organic compounds?
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Which of these organic molecules is essential for human functioning?
Which of these organic molecules is essential for human functioning?
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What role do functional groups play in organic chemistry?
What role do functional groups play in organic chemistry?
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Which of the following molecules is a polymer made from amino acids?
Which of the following molecules is a polymer made from amino acids?
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Which solution is categorized as basic?
Which solution is categorized as basic?
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In the context of human functioning, why are nucleic acids important?
In the context of human functioning, why are nucleic acids important?
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What is the primary element found in the backbone of organic compounds?
What is the primary element found in the backbone of organic compounds?
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What type of group characterizes alcohols?
What type of group characterizes alcohols?
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What process joins monosaccharides to form disaccharides?
What process joins monosaccharides to form disaccharides?
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Which of the following compounds is classified as a lipid?
Which of the following compounds is classified as a lipid?
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Which functional groups are found in amino acids?
Which functional groups are found in amino acids?
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What distinguishes polysaccharides from disaccharides?
What distinguishes polysaccharides from disaccharides?
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Which of the following statements about lipids is true?
Which of the following statements about lipids is true?
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Which of the following accurately defines a monomer?
Which of the following accurately defines a monomer?
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What does an electron donor do during a chemical reaction?
What does an electron donor do during a chemical reaction?
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Which type of reaction involves combining atoms to form larger molecules?
Which type of reaction involves combining atoms to form larger molecules?
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What is the overall charge of a chlorine ion (Cl-)?
What is the overall charge of a chlorine ion (Cl-)?
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What type of bond is characterized by a weak attraction between molecules, such as water?
What type of bond is characterized by a weak attraction between molecules, such as water?
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Which process requires energy to proceed?
Which process requires energy to proceed?
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What does polarity in water molecules result in?
What does polarity in water molecules result in?
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What is the primary role of bioremediation?
What is the primary role of bioremediation?
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Which of the following statements about chemical reactions is true?
Which of the following statements about chemical reactions is true?
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Which statement about inorganic compounds is true?
Which statement about inorganic compounds is true?
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What is an example of a decomposition reaction?
What is an example of a decomposition reaction?
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What are proteins primarily made of?
What are proteins primarily made of?
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Which structural level of proteins involves a sequence of amino acids?
Which structural level of proteins involves a sequence of amino acids?
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What type of bond connects amino acids in a protein?
What type of bond connects amino acids in a protein?
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What is the role of the tertiary structure of a protein?
What is the role of the tertiary structure of a protein?
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Which component is NOT part of nucleotides?
Which component is NOT part of nucleotides?
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What does the base pairing in DNA consist of?
What does the base pairing in DNA consist of?
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Which of the following is a type of conjugated protein?
Which of the following is a type of conjugated protein?
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What distinguishes RNA from DNA in terms of structure?
What distinguishes RNA from DNA in terms of structure?
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What is the main role of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in cells?
What is the main role of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) in cells?
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Which of the following correctly identifies the components of ATP?
Which of the following correctly identifies the components of ATP?
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What are the basic building blocks of carbohydrates?
What are the basic building blocks of carbohydrates?
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What structural difference distinguishes proteins from nucleic acids?
What structural difference distinguishes proteins from nucleic acids?
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What is the primary distinction between DNA and RNA?
What is the primary distinction between DNA and RNA?
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Which functional groups are present in all amino acids?
Which functional groups are present in all amino acids?
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What type of lipids are primarily involved in forming cell membranes?
What type of lipids are primarily involved in forming cell membranes?
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What is a characteristic symptom of oral thrush in infants?
What is a characteristic symptom of oral thrush in infants?
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Study Notes
Chapter 2: Chemical Principles
- This chapter covers the fundamental chemical principles essential for understanding microbiology.
- Objectives include exploring the structure of atoms, chemical bonding, reactions, important biological molecules (both inorganic and organic), and the role of chemistry in microbiology.
- Key vocabulary includes atom, molecules, electrons, neutrons, atomic number, atomic weight, element, isotopes, electron shell, energy levels, and valence.
- Chemistry is vital in microbiology as it underpins cellular structure and function. Many diseases have molecular-level effects.
- Understanding the infection process requires fundamental chemistry knowledge.
- Life on Earth relies on chemical reactions. Cell and tissue construction and function are part of this process and play a role in infection.
- The biological level of organization includes atoms, molecules, cells, tissues, organs, organ systems, and organisms.
Atomic Structure
- Elements consist of only one type of particle (atoms).
- Atoms contain subatomic particles: electrons, protons, and neutrons.
- Protons and neutrons are found in the atomic nucleus, which is the central part of the atom.
- Electrons orbit the nucleus in orbitals (3-D space).
- Electron energy refers to the energy levels within these orbitals.
- In a neutral atom, the number of electrons equals the number of protons.
- Electron shells (energy levels) have a limited capacity for electrons: the first shell holds 2, the second 8, and subsequent shells have increasing capacities.
- Chemical properties of an atom are largely determined by the valence electrons (the outermost ring).
- Atomic number is the fixed number of protons in the atomic nucleus (e.g., hydrogen (H) or oxygen (O)).
- Atomic weight is mostly the mass of protons plus neutrons (atomic mass unit (AMU) or Dalton), with the mass of electrons being negligible in comparison.
Chemical Elements
- Chemical elements are pure substances with atoms of the same number of protons.
- Each element has its own unique chemical symbol.
- Critical elements in living organisms include hydrogen, carbon nitrogen, and oxygen.
- Elements can have isotopes; these are atoms of the same element that have a different number of neutrons. This results in a different atomic weight, but the chemical behavior is similar.
- Radioactive isotopes are unstable and break down, emitting radiation, into other elements.
Chemical Bonds
- Atoms form molecules through chemical bonds.
- The objective of forming these bonds is to achieve a full valence shell.
- Bond energy is the energy needed to break a bond.
- Atoms form bonds in three ways: gaining, losing, or sharing electrons.
- Types of chemical bonds include:
- Covalent bonds: atoms share electron pairs. This is a stronger type of bond compared to ionic bonds. Molecules are formed through these bonds.
- Ionic bonds: atoms gain or lose electrons, becoming ions (with electric charges, either positive or negative).
- Hydrogen bonds: weaker bonds formed by attraction between a partially negative charge and a hydrogen atom that is covalently bonded to oxygen or nitrogen.
- These bonds are crucial to the structures and properties of molecules in biological systems.
Chemical Reactions
- Chemical reactions involve the making or breaking of chemical bonds.
- The total number of atoms remains the same.
- Chemical reactions re-arrange atoms into new molecules with different properties.
- Reactions require energy (activation energy) to start.
- Different types of chemical reactions are seen in living systems, such as:
- Synthesis reactions: when smaller molecules/particles combine to form a larger molecule
- Decomposition reactions: larger molecules break down into smaller ones.
- Exchange reactions: involve a combination of both synthesis and decomposition.
- Reactions can be classified as endothermic (absorbing energy) or exothermic (releasing energy).
Important Biological Molecules
- Organic compounds typically contain carbon and hydrogen atoms and are generally structurally complex. Examples are carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids and ATP
- Inorganic compounds usually lack carbon; they're typically small and simple molecules. Water is a key inorganic molecule.
Water
- Water is a vital inorganic molecule. It has special properties essential for life including its polarity.
- Hydrogen bonds between water molecules lead to unique physical and chemical properties crucial to life.
- Water's polarity makes it a good solvent.
- Water's properties affect chemical reactions within living organisms.
Inorganic Molecules: Acids, Bases, and Salts
- Acids: dissociate into H+ (protons) and anions.
- Bases: dissociate into OH- (hydroxide) ions.
- Salts: dissociate into cations and anions, neither of which is H+ or OH-.
Acid-Base Balance (pH)
- Maintaining a stable pH is essential for organisms.
- Changes in [H+ ] (hydrogen ion) concentration significantly impact enzyme activity and organism survival
- Optimal pH ranges for most organisms are around 6.5 - 8.5
Macromolecules
- Macromolecules are large molecules made up of repeating small units (monomers) bonded together through covalent bonds. Key examples include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.
Carbohydrates
- Carbohydrates are sugars and starches.
- They are composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
- Monosaccharides (simple sugars) can contain from 3 to 7 carbons; important ones include glucose, ribose, and 2-deoxyribose.
- Disaccharides are formed by joining two monosaccharides through dehydration synthesis. Hydrolysis reactions break them apart.
- Polysaccharides are long chains of monosaccharides. Important examples include starch, glycogen, cellulose, and chitin.
Lipids
- Lipids include fats, oils, and other water-insoluble molecules.
- Key components of lipids include glycerol and fatty acids.
- Types include simple lipids (mono, di, and triglycerides - formed by dehydration synthesis from the molecule glycerol and 3 fatty acids), complex lipids (like phospholipids) and steroids.
- Saturated fatty acids contain only single C-C bonds.
- Unsaturated fatty acids have at least one C=C double bond. These can be cis or trans.
- Phospholipids are major components of cell membranes.
Proteins
- Proteins are made up of amino acids held together by peptide bonds.
- Amino acids have an amino group (-NH2), a carboxyl group (-COOH), and a variable side chain (R group).
- Proteins have different levels of structure: primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary.
- Conjugated proteins contain amino acids and other components like carbohydrates or lipids.
Nucleic Acids
- Nucleic acids are polymers of nucleotides.
- Nucleotides consist of a five-carbon sugar (either ribose or deoxyribose), a phosphate group, and a nitrogen-containing base.
- DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is essential for storing genetic information. It has a double helix structure with base pairs: adenine-thymine and guanine-cytosine.
- RNA (ribonucleic acid) is essential for protein synthesis. It is single-stranded and has uracil in place of thymine, with base pairs: adenine-uracil and guanine-cytosine
Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
- ATP is a crucial energy carrier molecule in cells.
- ATP stores energy released from chemical reactions.
- ATP releases energy by breaking off phosphate groups and releasing useful energy for cell work.
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