Podcast
Questions and Answers
What term is used to describe a group of similar neurons within the central nervous system?
What term is used to describe a group of similar neurons within the central nervous system?
Which statement accurately describes the role of the spinal cord?
Which statement accurately describes the role of the spinal cord?
What is the primary function of a fasciculus in the context of the central nervous system?
What is the primary function of a fasciculus in the context of the central nervous system?
Which type of reflex is characterized as automatic and difficult to prevent?
Which type of reflex is characterized as automatic and difficult to prevent?
Signup and view all the answers
In the context of the peripheral nervous system, what do we refer to clusters of neurons as?
In the context of the peripheral nervous system, what do we refer to clusters of neurons as?
Signup and view all the answers
What connects homotopic areas in different hemispheres of the brain?
What connects homotopic areas in different hemispheres of the brain?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following statements about nerves is true?
Which of the following statements about nerves is true?
Signup and view all the answers
The patellar tendon reflex is an example of which type of reflex?
The patellar tendon reflex is an example of which type of reflex?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following peptide transmitters is classified under the opioids family?
Which of the following peptide transmitters is classified under the opioids family?
Signup and view all the answers
What function is primarily associated with neurohypophyseal peptide transmitters?
What function is primarily associated with neurohypophyseal peptide transmitters?
Signup and view all the answers
Which peptide is known for its role in modulating pleasure and pain?
Which peptide is known for its role in modulating pleasure and pain?
Signup and view all the answers
Endocannabinoids are synthesized for what purpose?
Endocannabinoids are synthesized for what purpose?
Signup and view all the answers
Which lipid transmitter is derived from unsaturated fatty acids?
Which lipid transmitter is derived from unsaturated fatty acids?
Signup and view all the answers
Which neurotransmitter is classified as a quick-acting neurotransmitter and is synthesized on demand?
Which neurotransmitter is classified as a quick-acting neurotransmitter and is synthesized on demand?
Signup and view all the answers
Which class of neurotransmitters includes serotonin and glutamate?
Which class of neurotransmitters includes serotonin and glutamate?
Signup and view all the answers
Which neurotransmitter is identified by its role in the cholinergic system?
Which neurotransmitter is identified by its role in the cholinergic system?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary role of the noradrenergic system in the brain?
What is the primary role of the noradrenergic system in the brain?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following neurotransmitters is synthesized from dietary nutrients?
Which of the following neurotransmitters is synthesized from dietary nutrients?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the function of adenosine in neurotransmission?
What is the function of adenosine in neurotransmission?
Signup and view all the answers
Which neurotransmitter is involved in the process of excitation in the nervous system?
Which neurotransmitter is involved in the process of excitation in the nervous system?
Signup and view all the answers
What characterizes amine neurotransmitters?
What characterizes amine neurotransmitters?
Signup and view all the answers
What does the term 'anterior' refer to in the context of brain anatomy?
What does the term 'anterior' refer to in the context of brain anatomy?
Signup and view all the answers
Which cells are responsible for producing myelin in the central nervous system?
Which cells are responsible for producing myelin in the central nervous system?
Signup and view all the answers
How is the cerebral neocortex primarily characterized?
How is the cerebral neocortex primarily characterized?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary function of the anterior root of the spinal cord?
What is the primary function of the anterior root of the spinal cord?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following best describes the term 'ipsilateral'?
Which of the following best describes the term 'ipsilateral'?
Signup and view all the answers
In what direction does the term 'ventral' locate a structure?
In what direction does the term 'ventral' locate a structure?
Signup and view all the answers
What type of matter is predominantly found on the outside of the brain structure?
What type of matter is predominantly found on the outside of the brain structure?
Signup and view all the answers
The term 'contralateral' means which of the following?
The term 'contralateral' means which of the following?
Signup and view all the answers
What anatomical orientation does 'posterior' indicate?
What anatomical orientation does 'posterior' indicate?
Signup and view all the answers
Which structure does the term 'pulvinar' refer to in anatomical terms?
Which structure does the term 'pulvinar' refer to in anatomical terms?
Signup and view all the answers
What does the term 'dorsal' indicate in anatomical direction?
What does the term 'dorsal' indicate in anatomical direction?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following terms describes the outermost layer of the cerebrum?
Which of the following terms describes the outermost layer of the cerebrum?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the role of Schwann cells in the nervous system?
What is the role of Schwann cells in the nervous system?
Signup and view all the answers
What does the term 'motor' imply in the context of nervous system function?
What does the term 'motor' imply in the context of nervous system function?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the thickness range of the human neocortex?
What is the thickness range of the human neocortex?
Signup and view all the answers
What type of information is primarily processed in the posterior tertiary areas of the neocortex?
What type of information is primarily processed in the posterior tertiary areas of the neocortex?
Signup and view all the answers
Which of the following statements about the neocortex is true?
Which of the following statements about the neocortex is true?
Signup and view all the answers
What does Brodmann's map primarily categorize?
What does Brodmann's map primarily categorize?
Signup and view all the answers
What kind of cortex is involved in generating action plans?
What kind of cortex is involved in generating action plans?
Signup and view all the answers
In the context of cortical connections, what are homotopic points?
In the context of cortical connections, what are homotopic points?
Signup and view all the answers
Which structure is primarily involved in receiving sensory information before it is processed further?
Which structure is primarily involved in receiving sensory information before it is processed further?
Signup and view all the answers
How many layers of grey matter does the neocortex contain?
How many layers of grey matter does the neocortex contain?
Signup and view all the answers
Which Brodmann area is specifically associated with Wernicke's area?
Which Brodmann area is specifically associated with Wernicke's area?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the main functional difference between the layers of the neocortex?
What is the main functional difference between the layers of the neocortex?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the primary role of the anterior cortex in the neocortex?
What is the primary role of the anterior cortex in the neocortex?
Signup and view all the answers
Which type of connections are referred to as intrahemispheric?
Which type of connections are referred to as intrahemispheric?
Signup and view all the answers
What are sulci in the context of the neocortex?
What are sulci in the context of the neocortex?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the role of the multimodal cortex?
What is the role of the multimodal cortex?
Signup and view all the answers
What describes the role of the anterior/ventral root in the spinal nerves?
What describes the role of the anterior/ventral root in the spinal nerves?
Signup and view all the answers
Which part of the brain is involved in processing sensory inputs according to the organizational structure of the CNS?
Which part of the brain is involved in processing sensory inputs according to the organizational structure of the CNS?
Signup and view all the answers
Which statement best describes the evolutionary approach to the CNS in complex animals?
Which statement best describes the evolutionary approach to the CNS in complex animals?
Signup and view all the answers
What is indicated by the double-headed arrow in the organization of brain systems?
What is indicated by the double-headed arrow in the organization of brain systems?
Signup and view all the answers
How does the brain’s organization support complex behaviors like watching a movie while eating popcorn?
How does the brain’s organization support complex behaviors like watching a movie while eating popcorn?
Signup and view all the answers
What is the 'binding problem' in neural processing?
What is the 'binding problem' in neural processing?
Signup and view all the answers
In which part of the CNS do layers V and VI primarily function?
In which part of the CNS do layers V and VI primarily function?
Signup and view all the answers
Which characteristic defines how more complex nervous systems compare to simpler ones?
Which characteristic defines how more complex nervous systems compare to simpler ones?
Signup and view all the answers
Study Notes
Part I - Background
- Chapters 1, 3-5 cover an introduction to neuropsychology and a review of the nervous system's organization and function.
Neuropsychology
- The scientific study of the relationships between brain function and behaviour.
- This interdisciplinary field draws on biology, biophysics, pharmacology, physiology, chemistry, psychology, and other disciplines.
Why study neuropsychology?
- To understand how the brain is organized to produce behaviour, including human behaviour, consciousness, and diversity (sexual, cultural, etc.).
- To treat individuals with brain injuries, diseases, and neurological disorders.
Major divisions of the human nervous system
-
Central Nervous System (CNS):
- Brain
- Spinal cord (in vertebrates)
- Retina (included due to developmental process - diencephalon outpocket)
-
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS):
- Nerves that carry signals in and out of the CNS (e.g., spinal nerves, cranial nerves).
Major divisions of the human nervous system (continued)
- Sensory and motor systems are crossed.
- The brain perceives and controls the opposite side of the body.
Organization of the nervous system
- Two major types of organization:
- Anatomical: The central nervous system (CNS), and the peripheral nervous system (PNS).
- Functional: The central nervous system (CNS), somatic nervous system (SNS), autonomic nervous system (ANS), and enteric nervous system.
Overview of nervous system function
- Forms a communication network between parts of an animal's body to generate behavior.
- Three primary functions:
- Sensory input (signals from sensory receptors to the CNS).
- Integration (analysis and interpretation of sensory signals, and formulating responses within the CNS).
- Motor output (command to effector cells to carry out the response).
Directional flow of neural information
- Afferent: incoming information (sensory pathways).
- Efferent: outgoing information (motor pathways).
The human nervous system is composed of cells
-
Neurons: specialized cells carrying signals between locations in the body/brain
- The human brain has approximately 86 billion neurons.
-
Glial cells (glia): non-neuronal cells supporting neurons, including nutritional support, immune function, and regulation of neuronal signaling.
- The human nervous system also contains approximately 85 billion glial cells.
Neurons
- Most behaviors are generated by groups of hundreds or thousands of neurons.
- Functional groups of neurons, called neural networks, connect wide areas of the brain and spinal cord.
- Neurons vary greatly in size and shape.
Diversity in neuron morphology
- Neurons come in various shapes and sizes, including bipolar, unipolar, and pyramidal neurons (e.g., Purkinje cells).
Neurons are information processing units
- Underlie plasticity.
- Dendrites are produced and retracted.
- Dendritic spines may be added or pruned.
- Neurons have up to 20 dendrites, each with many branches and up to 30,000 spines.
Neuronal Structures
- Axon hillock: The junction between the cell body and axon; the site of signal integration.
- Axon collateral: A branch of an axon.
- Telodendria: Terminal branches of an axon.
- Terminal button (end foot): Knobs at the tips of axons that convey information to other neurons.
- Synapse: The junction between neurons, where information is transferred.
Synapses form the basis of neuronal communication
- Presynaptic membrane: The output side of a synapse.
- Postsynaptic membrane: The input side of a synapse.
Axon initial segment
- Signal integration center
Anatomy basics
- Brain nomenclature is not consistent.
- Early investigators named structures after objects, mythology, etc.
- Modern terminology uses numbers and letters to reflect location.
Frame of reference: human face
- Structures toward the brain's midline are medial; structures located away from the midline are lateral.
- Structures on top of the brain are dorsal, structures at the bottom are ventral.
- Anterior is in front, posterior is at the back.
Frame of reference: other body parts and body orientation
- Rostral (beak), caudal (tail), dorsal (back), and ventral (stomach)
Spinal cord and nerves
- Spinal cord lies within the spinal column, made up of vertebra.
- Each spinal nerve is associated with a spinal segment.
- Each spinal segment corresponds to a region of body surface (dermatome).
Cross-section of the human spinal cord
- Posterior root carries sensory information; anterior root carries motor information.
Cranial nerves
- Various cranial nerves, numbered 1-12, have different functions.
Brainstem
- Connects spinal cord to the brain.
- Receives afferent signals from the body and sends efferent signals to the spinal cord.
- Responsible for essential life-sustaining behaviors.
Brainstem – Hindbrain (Reticular Formation, Pons, Medulla)
- Reticular formation: netlike mixture of nuclei and fiber pathways.
- Nuclei within the reticular formation are involved in sleep-wake behaviors, and arousal.
- Pons: Part of the brainstem.
- Plays a role in coordinating some vital body movements.
- Medulla: Contains critical centers controlling essential life functions (e.g., breathing, cardiovascular).
Brainstem – Midbrain (Tectum, Tegmentum)
- Tectum: posterior sensory structure
- Superior and inferior colliculi
- Produces orienting movements (e.g., turning head toward sound/vision)
- Tegmentum: anterior motor structure
- Species-specific behaviors, perception of pain.
Brainstem – Diencephalon (Thalamus, Hypothalamus)
- Thalamus: sorts sensory inputs and relays them to the appropriate region in the cortex.
- Hypothalamus: controls the body's production of hormones via the pituitary gland; controlling functions like temperature regulation, and behaviours such as drinking, eating, and sexual behavior.
Cerebrum (aka Forebrain): Telencephalon
- Cerebral cortex
- Limbic system
- Basal ganglia: plays a role in coordinating voluntary movements.
- Olfactory bulbs: involved in olfaction.
Forebrain – Basal ganglia
- Collection of nuclei below the white matter in the cortex
- Involved in coordinating movement, regulating the force and fluidity of movement, and associative learning (largely unconscious).
Forebrain – Limbic system
- Involved in emotional and motivational behaviours
- Related to certain forms of learning and memory.
Forebrain – Neocortex
- Human neocortex is up to 2500 cm² in area and 1-3 mm thick.
- Includes multiple lobes (frontal, parietal, temporal, and occipital).
Cortical organization
- Sensory information is received by the primary sensory area, then processed by secondary areas and is further analyzed by the posterior tertiary sensory areas before being received by the frontal associative areas, where decisions are made and actions are planned.
Neocortical layers
- 6 Layers of gray matter
- Different layers have different cell types.
- Cell density varies layer to layer.
- Functional differences between layers.
Brodmann's map
- 52 areas in the cortex, characterized by cytoarchitecture.
Cortical connections
- Tracts connect areas within the same hemisphere or opposite hemispheres.
What about myelin?
- Giant axons (e.g., squid) and mammalian axons have differing rates of transmission depending on myelin presence.
Multiple sclerosis (MS)
- Most common autoimmune disease.
- Loss of myelin formation by oligodendroglia.
- Forms hard scars (plaques)
- Disrupts neuron action potential propagation.
Symptoms of MS
- Blurred or double vision, extreme fatigue, loss of balance, muscle stiffness, speech problems, bladder and bowel problems, short-term memory problems.
- Loss of sensation and motor control, often starting in hands or feet.
Communication in the human nervous system
- 86 billion neurons and trillions of synapses.
- Each neuron receives information from hundreds of other neurons.
- Axon initial segment is the site of integration.
Two modes of synaptic communication
-
Chemical synapse:
- Neurotransmitter release.
- Postsynaptic response (receptor binding).
- Electrical synapse: Direct current flow between cells.
Chemical – Advantages
- Flexibility (strengthening or weakening).
Electrical – Advantages
- Instantaneous signal transfer.
Why are synapses so important?
- Essential for learning and memory.
Anterograde synaptic transmission
- Small molecule class
- Neurotransmitters synthesized from precursor molecules.
- Neurotransmitters are packaged and stored in vesicles.
- Release of neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft.
- Receptor action.
- Inactivation
Neurotransmitter transmitter release (mediated by Ca2+ ions channels)
- Action potential arrives
- Voltage-gated calcium channels open.
- Calcium ions enter the presynaptic terminal.
- Vesicles fuse to the membrane, releasing neurotransmitters into the cleft.
Neurotransmitter classes
- Small-molecule transmitters.
- Peptide transmitters.
- Lipid transmitters (endocannabinoids).
- Ion transmitters.
Small molecule neurotransmitters.
4 major activating systems
ACh in the CNS
- First neurotransmitter discovered.
- Works primarily at neuromuscular junction.
- Activates skeletal muscles.
- Involved in learning and memory (ACh in the CNS).
DA in the CNS
- Important for movement, attention, learning, motivation, reward.
- Degeneration in brainstem (substantia nigra) related to Parkinson's disease.
5-HT in the CNS
- Regulates waking activity, mood, aggression, appetite, sleep.
- Associated with depression, obsessive-compulsive disorder.
NE in the CNS
- Active in maintaining emotional tone.
- Decreased activity related to depression.
- Increased activity related to mania.
- Associated with hyperactivity and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.
GABA and Glutamate
- Amino acid neurotransmitters. - Workhorses of the brain.
- Glutamate is the main excitatory neurotransmitter in the brain.
- GABA is the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter.
Peptide Transmitters
- Stress hormones (e.g., cortisol).
- Bonding hormones (e.g., oxytocin).
- Regulate eating / drinking (e.g., orexin).
- Modulate pleasure/pain (e.g., endorphins).
Lipid transmitters (Endocannabinoids)
- Synthesized at the postsynaptic membrane.
- Act on presynaptic receptors. Retrograde signaling.
Two classes of neurotransmitter receptors.
- Ionotropic receptor: Embedded membrane protein with a binding site for NT, and a pore that regulates ion flow.
- Metabotropic receptor: Embedded membrane protein linked to a G protein.
lonotropic Receptor.
Metabotropic Receptor.
10 principles of Nervous System Function
2. Sensory and motor divisions.
3. CNS functions on multiple levels.
Multiple hierarchically organized circuits.
The “binding problem”
5 and 6. Localization and lateralization of function.
Lateralization of speech
Wernicke’s aphasia - Wernicke-Geschwind model
8. Object recognition and motor control. (Dorsal and ventral visual processing streams)
Studying That Suits You
Use AI to generate personalized quizzes and flashcards to suit your learning preferences.
Related Documents
Description
Test your knowledge on the central and peripheral nervous systems with this quiz. Explore key concepts such as neuron clusters, reflex types, and neurotransmitter functions. Ideal for students in neuroscience or related fields.
