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Questions and Answers
What is the primary function of leptin in the body?
What is the primary function of leptin in the body?
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What consequence arises from a deficiency of leptin?
What consequence arises from a deficiency of leptin?
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During the substrate phase of eating, what key process occurs?
During the substrate phase of eating, what key process occurs?
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Which neurons are activated when leptin levels are high?
Which neurons are activated when leptin levels are high?
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What triggers gastric distention?
What triggers gastric distention?
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What is the role of dopamine in feeding behavior?
What is the role of dopamine in feeding behavior?
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Which phase of hunger signals is associated with the release of ghrelin?
Which phase of hunger signals is associated with the release of ghrelin?
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What happens when there are bilateral lesions of the lateral hypothalamus?
What happens when there are bilateral lesions of the lateral hypothalamus?
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In which brain structure are the most distinct sexual dimorphisms clustered, especially in the 3rd ventricle?
In which brain structure are the most distinct sexual dimorphisms clustered, especially in the 3rd ventricle?
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What role do oxytocin and vasopressin play in mammals?
What role do oxytocin and vasopressin play in mammals?
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What anatomical change occurs in the hypothalamus of newborn mice following oestrogen administration?
What anatomical change occurs in the hypothalamus of newborn mice following oestrogen administration?
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What are the six universal emotions identified?
What are the six universal emotions identified?
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What happens to the serotonergic activity associated with aggression?
What happens to the serotonergic activity associated with aggression?
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In terms of sexual dimorphism in muscle size, which muscles are predominantly larger in males?
In terms of sexual dimorphism in muscle size, which muscles are predominantly larger in males?
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What is a key symptom associated with Kluver-Bucy syndrome in humans?
What is a key symptom associated with Kluver-Bucy syndrome in humans?
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What region of the brain is activated during singing in zebra finches?
What region of the brain is activated during singing in zebra finches?
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What role does cortisol play in the body's response to stress?
What role does cortisol play in the body's response to stress?
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Which neurotransmitter is primarily involved in the wake and sleep cycle?
Which neurotransmitter is primarily involved in the wake and sleep cycle?
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Which part of the brain is associated with the mesocorticolimbic dopamine system?
Which part of the brain is associated with the mesocorticolimbic dopamine system?
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What is the primary function of the enteric nervous system?
What is the primary function of the enteric nervous system?
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What happens during the post absorptive state?
What happens during the post absorptive state?
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What is the correct definition of anabolism?
What is the correct definition of anabolism?
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Which type of neurotransmitter is associated with enhancing the transmission in the mesocorticolimbic dopamine system and is related to drug addiction?
Which type of neurotransmitter is associated with enhancing the transmission in the mesocorticolimbic dopamine system and is related to drug addiction?
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How do postganglionic fibers differ in the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems?
How do postganglionic fibers differ in the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems?
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What characterizes diabetes insipidus?
What characterizes diabetes insipidus?
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At what point do gonads differentiate into male and female reproductive systems?
At what point do gonads differentiate into male and female reproductive systems?
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What role does vasopressin play in response to decreased blood volume?
What role does vasopressin play in response to decreased blood volume?
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What is the key defect in androgen insensitivity syndrome?
What is the key defect in androgen insensitivity syndrome?
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Which hormone is primarily responsible for the development of the male reproductive system?
Which hormone is primarily responsible for the development of the male reproductive system?
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How do steroid hormones primarily affect neurons?
How do steroid hormones primarily affect neurons?
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What is the role of the SRY gene?
What is the role of the SRY gene?
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What is hypovolemia defined as?
What is hypovolemia defined as?
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What is the primary function of hippocampal place cells?
What is the primary function of hippocampal place cells?
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What consequence does the degradation of neurons in a memory network have?
What consequence does the degradation of neurons in a memory network have?
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Which brain area is primarily associated with procedural memory?
Which brain area is primarily associated with procedural memory?
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How does the entorhinal cortex communicate with the hippocampus?
How does the entorhinal cortex communicate with the hippocampus?
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What is the role of NMDA receptors in long-term potentiation (LTP)?
What is the role of NMDA receptors in long-term potentiation (LTP)?
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What is metaplasticity in the context of synaptic plasticity?
What is metaplasticity in the context of synaptic plasticity?
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Which statement accurately reflects the consequences of high calcium concentrations through NMDA receptors?
Which statement accurately reflects the consequences of high calcium concentrations through NMDA receptors?
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What is required to convert temporary changes in memory into long-term memory?
What is required to convert temporary changes in memory into long-term memory?
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What is the primary function of the ventromedial pathway in the spinal cord?
What is the primary function of the ventromedial pathway in the spinal cord?
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Which brain area is primarily associated with higher motor control hierarchy and motor planning?
Which brain area is primarily associated with higher motor control hierarchy and motor planning?
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Damage to which structure typically leads to hemiballismus?
Damage to which structure typically leads to hemiballismus?
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Which part of the brain receives cortical input and plays a crucial role in selecting and initiating willed movements?
Which part of the brain receives cortical input and plays a crucial role in selecting and initiating willed movements?
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What is a common symptom of basal ganglia disorders?
What is a common symptom of basal ganglia disorders?
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What is the effect of immediate damage to the motor cortex or corticospinal tract in humans?
What is the effect of immediate damage to the motor cortex or corticospinal tract in humans?
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What role do the deep cerebellar nuclei play?
What role do the deep cerebellar nuclei play?
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What is the primary role of the hypothalamus in the body?
What is the primary role of the hypothalamus in the body?
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What type of communication does the diffuse modulatory system represent?
What type of communication does the diffuse modulatory system represent?
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What does population coding in motor neurons refer to?
What does population coding in motor neurons refer to?
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Which brain structures are most crucial for various emotions?
Which brain structures are most crucial for various emotions?
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What is one of the primary effects of a frontal lobotomy in humans?
What is one of the primary effects of a frontal lobotomy in humans?
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What defines sham rage?
What defines sham rage?
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Affective aggression is primarily characterized by what features?
Affective aggression is primarily characterized by what features?
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Which structure, when stimulated, leads to predatory aggression?
Which structure, when stimulated, leads to predatory aggression?
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How is EEG amplitude affected during active information processing?
How is EEG amplitude affected during active information processing?
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What might high levels of sympathetic activity be associated with?
What might high levels of sympathetic activity be associated with?
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Which brain region is implicated in generating sleep mechanisms based on localized neural recordings?
Which brain region is implicated in generating sleep mechanisms based on localized neural recordings?
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What is the primary function of cortisol in the body?
What is the primary function of cortisol in the body?
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Which neurotransmitter is associated with the raphae nuclei?
Which neurotransmitter is associated with the raphae nuclei?
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What characterizes the enteric nervous system?
What characterizes the enteric nervous system?
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Which structure is responsible for the release of adrenaline?
Which structure is responsible for the release of adrenaline?
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What is the primary role of the mesocorticolimbic dopamine system?
What is the primary role of the mesocorticolimbic dopamine system?
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What is the primary brain structure where the most distinct sexual dimorphism occurs in mammals?
What is the primary brain structure where the most distinct sexual dimorphism occurs in mammals?
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Which neurotransmitter do postganglionic fibers of the sympathetic nervous system primarily use?
Which neurotransmitter do postganglionic fibers of the sympathetic nervous system primarily use?
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Which behavior is influenced by oxytocin and vasopressin in mammals?
Which behavior is influenced by oxytocin and vasopressin in mammals?
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What defines the process of catabolism?
What defines the process of catabolism?
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What anatomical feature is larger in males compared to females, indicating sexual dimorphism?
What anatomical feature is larger in males compared to females, indicating sexual dimorphism?
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What effect does experimentally administered oestrogen have on newborn mice?
What effect does experimentally administered oestrogen have on newborn mice?
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In the proposed neural circuit for learned fear, what is altered by the neural connection?
In the proposed neural circuit for learned fear, what is altered by the neural connection?
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What is a known effect of lesions on the amygdala in humans?
What is a known effect of lesions on the amygdala in humans?
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What is a primary anatomical location of the amygdala within the brain?
What is a primary anatomical location of the amygdala within the brain?
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What are the universal emotions identified in psychological studies?
What are the universal emotions identified in psychological studies?
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How do rats with hippocampal lesions behave in the radial arm maze when every arm is baited?
How do rats with hippocampal lesions behave in the radial arm maze when every arm is baited?
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Which brain area is primarily implicated in procedural memory?
Which brain area is primarily implicated in procedural memory?
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What is the main role of the NMDA receptor in long-term potentiation (LTP)?
What is the main role of the NMDA receptor in long-term potentiation (LTP)?
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What is graceful degradation in the context of memory?
What is graceful degradation in the context of memory?
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What is required for converting temporary changes into long-term memory?
What is required for converting temporary changes into long-term memory?
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Which process does metaplasticity refer to?
Which process does metaplasticity refer to?
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How can calcium entry through the NMDA receptor trigger both long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD)?
How can calcium entry through the NMDA receptor trigger both long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD)?
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What term describes the threshold for synaptic modification based on NMDA receptor activation?
What term describes the threshold for synaptic modification based on NMDA receptor activation?
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What does the presence of Broca's and Wernicke's aphasia in deaf individuals suggest about language processing?
What does the presence of Broca's and Wernicke's aphasia in deaf individuals suggest about language processing?
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What is a main criticism of the language processing models based on aphasia?
What is a main criticism of the language processing models based on aphasia?
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What is the purpose of the Wada procedure?
What is the purpose of the Wada procedure?
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What behavior is characteristic of subjects with a split brain?
What behavior is characteristic of subjects with a split brain?
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In which tasks are the non-dominant hemispheres shown to excel?
In which tasks are the non-dominant hemispheres shown to excel?
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What happens to brain activity when shifting from a task to rest in the default mode network (DMN)?
What happens to brain activity when shifting from a task to rest in the default mode network (DMN)?
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What defines endogenous attention?
What defines endogenous attention?
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What is the effect of injecting bicuculline into the pulvinar nucleus?
What is the effect of injecting bicuculline into the pulvinar nucleus?
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Which pathway is primarily involved in maintaining posture and locomotion?
Which pathway is primarily involved in maintaining posture and locomotion?
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What is the primary function of the reticulospinal tract?
What is the primary function of the reticulospinal tract?
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Which part of the motor hierarchy is responsible for tactical decision-making?
Which part of the motor hierarchy is responsible for tactical decision-making?
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Which disorder is characterized by unilateral involuntary movements due to damage to the subthalamic nucleus?
Which disorder is characterized by unilateral involuntary movements due to damage to the subthalamic nucleus?
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What role do the deep cerebellar nuclei play in motor control?
What role do the deep cerebellar nuclei play in motor control?
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In motor somatotopy, the organization of movement control is often represented by what concept?
In motor somatotopy, the organization of movement control is often represented by what concept?
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What consequence arises from immediate damage to the motor cortex or corticospinal tract in humans?
What consequence arises from immediate damage to the motor cortex or corticospinal tract in humans?
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Which area of the brain primarily receives cortical input and is involved in initiating willed movements?
Which area of the brain primarily receives cortical input and is involved in initiating willed movements?
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Which system represents a way for one neuron to influence many others in neuronal communication?
Which system represents a way for one neuron to influence many others in neuronal communication?
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What is the main role of the hypothalamus in homeostasis?
What is the main role of the hypothalamus in homeostasis?
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What is the main purpose of the cervical and lumbar enlargements in the spinal cord?
What is the main purpose of the cervical and lumbar enlargements in the spinal cord?
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Which of the following accurately describes a motor unit?
Which of the following accurately describes a motor unit?
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What is the role of gamma motor neurons in muscle contraction?
What is the role of gamma motor neurons in muscle contraction?
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What is meant by reciprocal inhibition in muscle dynamics?
What is meant by reciprocal inhibition in muscle dynamics?
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Which component is primarily responsible for the initiation and control of voluntary movement?
Which component is primarily responsible for the initiation and control of voluntary movement?
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Which brain structures are primarily associated with several different emotions?
Which brain structures are primarily associated with several different emotions?
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What are some common side effects of a frontal lobotomy?
What are some common side effects of a frontal lobotomy?
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What behavior is associated with high levels of activity in the sympathetic division of the ANS?
What behavior is associated with high levels of activity in the sympathetic division of the ANS?
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What is the primary characteristic of affective aggression?
What is the primary characteristic of affective aggression?
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What does an EEG primarily measure in the brain?
What does an EEG primarily measure in the brain?
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Which type of aggression is characterized by a direct attack against different species for food?
Which type of aggression is characterized by a direct attack against different species for food?
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What happens to the EEG amplitude when we actively process information?
What happens to the EEG amplitude when we actively process information?
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Which part of the brain is most associated with sham rage due to the removal of certain areas?
Which part of the brain is most associated with sham rage due to the removal of certain areas?
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Which brain structure has the biggest sex differences clustered in the 3rd ventricle?
Which brain structure has the biggest sex differences clustered in the 3rd ventricle?
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What influences pair bonding and parenting behaviors in mammals?
What influences pair bonding and parenting behaviors in mammals?
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What anatomical feature is larger in males than in females contributing to sexual dimorphism?
What anatomical feature is larger in males than in females contributing to sexual dimorphism?
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Which neural pathway is associated with learned fear responses?
Which neural pathway is associated with learned fear responses?
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What language deficit is associated with a mutation in the FOXP2 gene?
What language deficit is associated with a mutation in the FOXP2 gene?
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What effect do amygdala lesions typically have on human behavior?
What effect do amygdala lesions typically have on human behavior?
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What distinguishes the human FOXP2 gene from the Foxp2 gene found in other primates?
What distinguishes the human FOXP2 gene from the Foxp2 gene found in other primates?
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What neural connection alters the state of the autonomic nervous system in learned fear responses?
What neural connection alters the state of the autonomic nervous system in learned fear responses?
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What characterizes Wernicke’s aphasia?
What characterizes Wernicke’s aphasia?
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What happens to sensory maps in the brains of lactating rats due to sex hormones?
What happens to sensory maps in the brains of lactating rats due to sex hormones?
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Where is Broca's area located in the brain?
Where is Broca's area located in the brain?
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Which region is not part of the frontoparietal attention network?
Which region is not part of the frontoparietal attention network?
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What is the primary role of the amygdala based on experimental evidence?
What is the primary role of the amygdala based on experimental evidence?
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What mechanism explains why certain visual features capture attention?
What mechanism explains why certain visual features capture attention?
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What is conduction aphasia caused by?
What is conduction aphasia caused by?
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How does stimulation of neurons in the frontal eye fields (FEF) affect threshold detection?
How does stimulation of neurons in the frontal eye fields (FEF) affect threshold detection?
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Which of the following reflects a key element in the Wernicke-Geschwind model of language processing?
Which of the following reflects a key element in the Wernicke-Geschwind model of language processing?
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What is the term for the inability to find words?
What is the term for the inability to find words?
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What defines the neural correlates of consciousness (NCC)?
What defines the neural correlates of consciousness (NCC)?
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What is a notable effect of lesions in Broca's area?
What is a notable effect of lesions in Broca's area?
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Which describes a symptom of panic attacks?
Which describes a symptom of panic attacks?
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What is one argument that reflects the weakness in language models of processing?
What is one argument that reflects the weakness in language models of processing?
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What characterizes agoraphobia?
What characterizes agoraphobia?
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What is a common treatment for acute anxiety disorders?
What is a common treatment for acute anxiety disorders?
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What is a common symptom of major depression?
What is a common symptom of major depression?
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What behavior do subjects with a split brain exhibit?
What behavior do subjects with a split brain exhibit?
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In most humans, which tasks are the non-dominant hemispheres superior at?
In most humans, which tasks are the non-dominant hemispheres superior at?
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What happens to brain activity when entering the Default Mode Network (DMN) while performing a task?
What happens to brain activity when entering the Default Mode Network (DMN) while performing a task?
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According to the internal mentation hypothesis, when is the DMN most active?
According to the internal mentation hypothesis, when is the DMN most active?
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What is true about the effect of pulvinar lesions in the visual field?
What is true about the effect of pulvinar lesions in the visual field?
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What describes the effect of muscimol injection?
What describes the effect of muscimol injection?
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What is the term for the collection of alpha motor neurons that innervate a single muscle?
What is the term for the collection of alpha motor neurons that innervate a single muscle?
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Which motor neurons are responsible for maintaining the sensitivity of muscle spindles during contractions?
Which motor neurons are responsible for maintaining the sensitivity of muscle spindles during contractions?
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What is the primary mechanism through which the central nervous system can grade muscle contraction?
What is the primary mechanism through which the central nervous system can grade muscle contraction?
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What is the role of upper motor neurons in the control of voluntary movement?
What is the role of upper motor neurons in the control of voluntary movement?
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Why do flexors and extensors function as antagonists?
Why do flexors and extensors function as antagonists?
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What language deficit is associated with individuals having a mutation in the FOXP2 gene?
What language deficit is associated with individuals having a mutation in the FOXP2 gene?
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What structural difference in the FOXP2 gene exists between humans and other primates?
What structural difference in the FOXP2 gene exists between humans and other primates?
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Which area of the brain is primarily associated with the production of speech?
Which area of the brain is primarily associated with the production of speech?
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What is the main consequence of a lesion affecting Broca's area?
What is the main consequence of a lesion affecting Broca's area?
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What does conduction aphasia result from?
What does conduction aphasia result from?
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What are the characteristics of Wernicke's aphasia?
What are the characteristics of Wernicke's aphasia?
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What is the term for the difficulty in finding words when speaking?
What is the term for the difficulty in finding words when speaking?
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What is the probable impact of a cortical lesion in a person who learned two languages simultaneously during early life?
What is the probable impact of a cortical lesion in a person who learned two languages simultaneously during early life?
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What role does vasopressin have in the body during a decrease in blood volume?
What role does vasopressin have in the body during a decrease in blood volume?
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What occurs when neurons of OVLT respond to an increase in salt levels in the blood?
What occurs when neurons of OVLT respond to an increase in salt levels in the blood?
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What defines a key defect in androgen insensitivity syndrome?
What defines a key defect in androgen insensitivity syndrome?
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What effect do steroid hormones have on neurons?
What effect do steroid hormones have on neurons?
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When do gonads differentiate into male and female reproductive systems?
When do gonads differentiate into male and female reproductive systems?
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What is the primary role of testosterone in male reproductive system development?
What is the primary role of testosterone in male reproductive system development?
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What type of memory is primarily involved in performing tasks that require skills, habits, and behaviors?
What type of memory is primarily involved in performing tasks that require skills, habits, and behaviors?
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What type of amnesia occurs when a patient cannot recollect past events occurring before a traumatic incident?
What type of amnesia occurs when a patient cannot recollect past events occurring before a traumatic incident?
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Which brain regions are crucial for the consolidation of declarative memory?
Which brain regions are crucial for the consolidation of declarative memory?
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What is the term for learning that results in a change in behavior in response to a single type of stimulus over time?
What is the term for learning that results in a change in behavior in response to a single type of stimulus over time?
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What type of memory task is the Wisconsin card-sorting test primarily used to assess?
What type of memory task is the Wisconsin card-sorting test primarily used to assess?
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What is the outcome of Lashley's investigations regarding the memory engram?
What is the outcome of Lashley's investigations regarding the memory engram?
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Which type of memory consolidation is hindered in patients with anterograde amnesia, as seen in patient HM?
Which type of memory consolidation is hindered in patients with anterograde amnesia, as seen in patient HM?
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What cognitive deficit is a hallmark feature of Korsakoff’s syndrome?
What cognitive deficit is a hallmark feature of Korsakoff’s syndrome?
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How do benzodiazepines and barbiturates help in managing seizures?
How do benzodiazepines and barbiturates help in managing seizures?
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What characterizes non-REM sleep?
What characterizes non-REM sleep?
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What does the Wada procedure determine?
What does the Wada procedure determine?
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Why is REM sleep termed 'paradoxical sleep'?
Why is REM sleep termed 'paradoxical sleep'?
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Which neurotransmitter is associated with awakening and states of arousal?
Which neurotransmitter is associated with awakening and states of arousal?
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Which statement about attention is correct?
Which statement about attention is correct?
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What do circadian rhythms regulate?
What do circadian rhythms regulate?
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What characterizes Broca’s and Wernicke’s aphasia in deaf individuals?
What characterizes Broca’s and Wernicke’s aphasia in deaf individuals?
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What is a free-running circadian rhythm?
What is a free-running circadian rhythm?
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What occurs in the brain during rest compared to task performance?
What occurs in the brain during rest compared to task performance?
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What happens to eye movement muscles during REM sleep?
What happens to eye movement muscles during REM sleep?
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What is the activation-synthesis hypothesis regarding dreams?
What is the activation-synthesis hypothesis regarding dreams?
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What is the primary outcome of bicuculline injections in the pulvinar nucleus?
What is the primary outcome of bicuculline injections in the pulvinar nucleus?
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What is one argument against models that suggest a linear pattern in aphasia?
What is one argument against models that suggest a linear pattern in aphasia?
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Which statement is false regarding the role of the default mode network (DMN)?
Which statement is false regarding the role of the default mode network (DMN)?
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Study Notes
Memory and Learning
- Memory involves processes for storing and retrieving information
- Declarative memory is consciously recalled
- Procedural memory involves skills and habits
- Memory consolidation is the transfer from short-term to long-term memory
- Working memory is a temporary storage system for information needed in the present
- Retrograde amnesia involves loss of memory for events before an injury or trauma
- Anterograde amnesia is the inability to form new memories after an injury or trauma
- Korsakoff's syndrome is a neurological disorder characterized by severe anterograde amnesia and confabulation
- Language areas are located in the brain (Broca's area and Wernicke's area), and are connected by the arcuate fasciculus;
- Aphasia is a language deficit often due to brain damage
- Non-associative learning involves a change in behavioral response to a single stimulus over time
- The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test is a neuropsychological test used to assess working memory.
- The Radial Arm Maze is a task used to study spatial memory and working memory in animals.
- Hippocampus place cells respond selectively when the animal is in a particular place
- Procedural memory deficits can be seen in people with Parkinson's disease.
Brain Structures and Functions
- The hippocampus plays a role in memory consolidation and spatial navigation (place cells).
- The amygdala is involved in emotional responses, fear learning, and aggression
- The hypothalamus is important for regulating stress responses & bodily functions (part of the limbic system).Influences the HPA (hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal) axis, releasing cortisol during stress, and plays a role in releasing CRH (corticotropin-releasing hormone).
- The thalamus is involved in sensory processing, attention, and relaying signals to the cortex (including the pulvinar nucleus - specifically involved in attention and visual processing).
- The prefrontal cortex is involved in higher-level cognitive functions, such as planning, decision-making, and working memory.
- The striatum is involved in procedural memory and motor control.
- The dorsal telencephalon/venticular zone are areas where cells are made for the cortex; radial glial cells create the scaffold for cell migration
- The pulvinar nucleus is involved in attention and visual processing, in the thalamus.
- The Internal Mentation Hypothesis suggests that the default mode network (DMN) is more active when at rest, involved in internally focused mental activities such as daydreaming.
- The subplate layer is a layer below the cortical layer, that contains neural precursor cells migrating to form the cortex
Neuronal Communication
- Neurons communicate through action potentials and neurotransmitters
- Synaptic plasticity (LTP and LTD) is a key mechanism for learning and memory, where an NMDA receptor is involved in long-term potentiation. Long-term potentiation (LTP) is a strengthening of synaptic connections while long-term depression (LTD) is the weakening of synaptic connections which are both required for learning and consolidation.
- Neurotransmitters (such as dopamine, serotonin, norepinephrine, oxytocin, vasopressin, and acetylcholine) play a crucial role in the different brain functions
- The diffuse modulatory system plays a role in regulating brain activity, and includes different neurotransmitters (e.g. norepinephrine) influencing wakefulness, attention, and arousal in different ways.
Animal Models
- Specific animal models (such as rats and primates) are used to study the function of specific brain areas, including the effects of lesions. Radial arm mazes and the Wisconsin Card Sorting test are examples of experimental tasks used in animals. The split brain is another example of a procedure done on animals to study how humans process information. Some animal models include the use of the radial arm maze in animals to observe how memory functions.
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This quiz explores the neurobiological mechanisms underlying hunger, feeding behavior, and emotional responses. Questions focus on the roles of leptin, ghrelin, and various brain structures involved in these processes. Test your knowledge about how these factors interact in regulating appetite and emotions.
