Chapter 13-15 PDF

Chapter 13 Why do ventral horns appeal swollen at cervical and lumbar enlargements ○ We need larger number of neurons to innervate muscles of these limbs Which muscle are involved in maintaining posture ○ Axial muscles (closer to centre of body) What is the collecti...

Chapter 13 Why do ventral horns appeal swollen at cervical and lumbar enlargements ○ We need larger number of neurons to innervate muscles of these limbs Which muscle are involved in maintaining posture ○ Axial muscles (closer to centre of body) What is the collection of alpha motor neurons that innervate a single muscle called? ○ Motor neuron pool 3 major sources of synaptic input to alpha motor neurons ○ Upper motor neurons, interneurons & muscle spindles Which source of input to alpha motor neurons of the spinal cord is responsible for the initiation and control of voluntary movement? ○ Upper motor neurons in motor cortex & brainstem What is a motor unit? ○ One alpha motor neuron and all the muscle fibers that it innervates What type of motor neurons ensure that muscle spindles can keep providing information about muscle length during contraction ○ Gamma motor neurons Two ways in which CNS grades muscle contraction ○ Firing rate & number of neurons firing Why are flexors and extensors antagonists? ○ Pull on joints in opposite directions What is reciprocal inhibition? ○ Contraction of one set of muscles accompanied by relaxation of the antagonist muscles What reflex prevents you from falling when you suddenly lift one foot off the ground in response to pain ○ Crossed extensor reflex What do we mean by central pattern generators? ○ Spinal circuits that give rise to rhythmic motor activity CHAPTER 14 Function of ventromedial pathway in spinal cord ○ In charge of controlling posture and locomotion (movement) ○ Includes tectospinal, vestibulospinal, pontine, and medullary reticulospinal tract Tecotospinal – movement of head orientation in response to stimuli Vestibulospinal + tectospinal – balances body when head turns Reticulospinal tract – helps us resist gravity and maintain posture Lateral pathway – voluntary movement (in monkeys) rubrospinal tract – compensate for deficits in corticospinal Area 4 (cortical area for M1) Activity in area 6 (SMA & PMA) – higher motor area (responsible for ready in ready set go) ○ Highest level of motor control hierarchy – motor planning and strategy SMA & PMA make up area 6 ○ They innervate different motor units  Motor somatotopy – homunculus man for motor control Basal ganglia – caudate, putamen (receives cortical input to basal ganglia) ○ Part of info loop between motor cortex and VL nucleus of thalamus – to select and initiate willed movements Target of cortical input to BG? ○ Striatum (caudate and putamen) When we make tactical decisions (strategy etc) which part of motor hierarchy controls sequence of muscle contractions ○ Neocortex & BG of forebrain BG disorders – dementia is symptom of both ○ Parkinsons ○ Huntington BG disorders – hemiballismus ○ Similar to huntington but only occurs on one side of the body ○ Damage to the subthalamic nucleus (typically following a stroke) M1 organization ○ Two major sources of input – cortical areas and thalamus Motor neurons also use population coding ○ Summation of neurons ○ Activity of each cell has a single “vote” and the aggregate determines the movement Cerebellum – coordinating sequences of muscle contractions ○ Ataxia – left cerebellar tumor Uncoordinated and inaccurate movements Role of neurons in deep cerebellar nuclei ○ relays information from cerebellum to various brain stem structures Lateral hemisphere ○ Contributes to lateral pathways and cerebellar cortex to control execution of planned, voluntary, multi-joint movements of the distal musculature ○ Distal musculature – extremities (limbs further from body) What is role of anterior frontal lobe ○ Abstract thinking – decision making, strategizing, thinking about philosophy (humans) immediate effect of damage to the motor cortex or corticospinal tract ○ Paralysis of contralateral side CHAPTER 15 Patterns of communication – 3 systems for neuronal communication ○ Secretory hypothalamus – secrete chemicals directly into bloodstream ○ Neutral hypothalamus – ANS ○ Diffuse modulatory system – one neuron can influence many other neurons Hypothalamus ○ Tiny lesions can produce dramatic and often fatal disruption of widely dispersed bodily functions ○ Main role – homeostasis (body internal environment – temp, blood/vol & pressure, glucose etc) Oxytocin and vasopressin (neurohormones – NT that act like hormones) ○ Released by magnocellular neurons How does the hypothalamus control the posterior pituitary gland? ○ Via magnocellular neurons Hypothalamus – “true master gland of endocrine” because it regulates release of a lot of hormones Stress response – produce cortisol (steroid hormone) ○ Cortisol – mobilize energy system and suppresses the immune system Fight or flight – gives us rush of energy Adrenal medulla – important in release of adrenaline CNS Lower motor neurons located in autonomic ganglia (outside CNS) Cell bodies of preganglionic neurons located in brain stem and spinal cord Postganglionic fibers of sympathetic uses NE while parasympathetic uses Ach Enteric NS – located in lining of esophagus, stomach, intestines, pancreas and gallbladder ○ Known as “little brain” – can operate independently (contains about 500 million neurons) ○ Monitors chemical status of stomach and intestinal contents  Modulatory systems: noradrenergic ○ Locus coeruleus (LC) – how does it make neurons of cerebral cortex more responsive to salient stimuli Speeding info processing Activated by new, unexpected, and non-painful stimuli Modulatory systems: serotonergic ○ Which NT is synthesized and released by raphae nuclei – SEROTONIN ○ Which neurons engaged in wake and sleep cycle – raphae nuclei Which NT? Serotonin Modulatory systems: dopaminergic ○ Originates in VTA – innervates region of telencephalon (parts of frontal lobe and limbic system) – MESOCORTICOLIMBIC DOPAMINE SYSTEM (rewards) Modulatory systems: cholinergic ○ Cholinergic interneurons (ChAT cells) scattered throughout brain ○ Present in parasympathetic ANS Modulatory systems: stimulant drugs ○ Forming addiction of cocaine and amphetamine – result of enhanced transmission in mesocorticolimbic dopamine system CHAPTER 16 1. How does an imbalance between energy reserves and usage lead to obesity? a. Prolonged positive energy balance b. Intake and storage consistently exceeds usage 2. T/F glycogen reserves are found in adipose tissue? a. False. Found in liver, skeletal and muscles b. Triglycerides are found in adipose 3. What is anabolism a. Assembly of macromolecules (glycogen and triglycerides) from simple precursors 4. What is catabolism a. Break down of complex macromolecules 5. What is post absorptive state? a. Period between meals b. Glycogen and triglycerides are used to produce energy needed for cellular metabolism 6. Very broadly, what is the lipostatic hypothesis? a. Idea that brain monitors the amount of body fat 7. What is role of leptin? a. Regulates body mass b. Tells you when you are full 8. How are satiety signals felt? a. Inhibit or terminal meal b. Inhibit feeding for some time afterward 9. What happens with bilateral lesions of the lateral hypothalamus? a. Anorexia 10. What categorizes bulimia? a. Binge eating —> purging 11. Visceromotor response vs somatic motor response? 12. what is humoral response a. Stimulate, inhibit and release of pituitary hormones b. E.g. TSH and ACTH 13. Where are neurons that regulate homeostasis found a. Anterior hypothalamus 14. what role does TSH play in sudden change in body temp a. Stimulates release of thyroxine 15. What happens when leptin levels are high a. Activated aMSH/CART neurons in actuate nucleus 16. What happens when drop in leptin levels a. Decrease in secretion of TSH and ACTH 17. Consequence of leptin deficiency a. Increase NPY/AgRP neurons in actuate nucleus 18. What is gastric distention a. Stretching of stomach wall b. When we eat our stomach stretches  c. Our stomach is very elastic 19. What happens during substrate phase? (One of the stages of eating) a. Nutrients are absorbed into blood stream from intestines b. Insulin levels are maximal at this phase 20. What is ghrelin? a. Peptide highly concentrated in stomach b. Released into bloodstream when our stomach is empty c. Signal that we are hungry 21. When stomach is full, there are mechanosensory neurons on stomach wall sense distention and transmits sensation to NTS in medulla via which nerve? a. Vagus nerve 22. role of dopamine in feeding behavior a. Reward b. Linked to craving/wanting food c. Increased craving for food without increasing hedonic impact d. Make us want food but doesn’t change how we taste or experience the food 23. T/F dopamine depleted animals appear to lack motivation to seek food even though they are enjoying the food when it is available a. True 24. Most effective site for self-stimulation of reward among the trajectory of dopaminergic axons (smth like this) a. Ventral tegmental area 25. Role of serotonin in our experience of food? a. links food with mood 26. T/F serotonin levels in hypo spike during a meal especially in response to carbs? a. True. Warm fuzzy feeling after eating carb heavy meal. 27. What is hypovolemia a. Decrease in blood volume 28. What role does vasopressin play when there is a decrease in blood volume a. Acts on kidneys to increase water retention 29. What is diabetes insipidus characterised by? a. Large volumes of pale, watery urine b. Selective loss of vasopressin 30. How do neurons of OVLT respond when blood becomes hypotonic (increase in salt levels) a. Excited magnocellular neurosecrrtort cells b. Secrete vasopressin CHAPTER 17 1. When is genetic sex determined a. At conception, at time of fertilisation 2. How many chromosomes a. 46 3. Basis of x linked disorders a. Defect in single X chromosome in males b. Females have 2 X chromosome, so if one is defective, the other can encode 4. What DNA manipulation has been used to change gender or sex of mouse? a. SRY gene on Y chromosome code for protein called testis determining factor (TDF) 5. At what point do gonads differentiate into male and female reproductive systems a. 6 weeks b. Are undifferentiated before that c. Turn into testes and ovaries 6. Which androgen leads to development of male reproductive system? a. Testosterone 7. Steroid hormone have organisational and activations effect. What is an example of organisational effect? a. Wolffian duct develops into the male reproductive organs 8. T/F Steroid hormones are fatty and can easily pass through cell membranes and other receptors. Giving them direct access to the nucleus and gene expression a. True 9. T/F testosterone is only produced in the testes a. False b. Majority produced in testes but produced in ovaries too (~10% of what is produced in males) 10. Key defect in androgen insensitivity syndrome a. Androgen receptor gene b. If androgen is present, receptors can’t detect it 11. Describe defective androgen insensitivity a. Genetic male with female body appearance b. Androgens play role in regulation expression of variety of male sex related genes 12. T/F female testosterone levels are about 10% of what is found in males a. true 13. Name 2 gonadotropins a. LH & FSH 14. how do steroid hormones affect neurons? a. Bind to membrane proteins or intracellular receptors 15. Most distinct sexual dimorphism in mammalian brain are clustered in the 3rd ventricle of which brain structure? a. preoptic area of anterior hypothalamus b. Biggest sex differences are found here 16. What do we know about influence of oxytocin and vasopressin a. Influence pair bonding and parenting behaviors 17. What happens when prairie voles a. Male — vasopressin rise b. Female — 18. What is basis of sexual dimorphism a. Bulbocavernosus muscles larger in males than females 19. What region of brain accounts when zebra finches sing a. Vocal control region 20. Example of activation effect of sex hormones? (rats) a. During lactation, sensory maps of general skin (location of nipples) expand 21. What is the effect of experimentally administered oestrogen in newborn mice a. Caused exuberant neurite outgrowth in hypothalamus 22. Body that has both male and female tissues a. Gynandromorph 23. What is one caveat about studying sexual dimorphism of cognitions in humans? a. More individual differences within subjects (more diff between group of females than between females and male (gender specific)) CHAPTER 18 1. Universal emotions? a. Anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness and surprise 2. Canon and bard propose that character of emotion is determined by teh pattern of activation of the? a. Thalamus 3. Experience for unconscious emotion a. Angry face with sound b. Face is shown again for a momentary second c. Connection between that and the sound d. Showed skin conduction e. Autonomic responses to angry faces that have not been perceived 4. Papez circuit? a. Neocortex, fornix, hippocampus, hypothalamus, anterior nuclei of thalamus, and cingulate cortex 5. One symptom associated with kluver bucy syndrome in humans a. Decreased fear and aggression 6. Less serotonergic activity? a. More aggression 7. What is the anatomical location of amygdala in brain? a. Temporal lobe 8. What is experimental evidence that suggested that amygdala is associated with aggression and bilateral amygdalectomy a. Monkey social hierarchy 9. What is the most common symptom of amygdala lesions in humans a. Facial expressions 10. What is the effect of lesions on amygdala a. Increased anxiety and fear 11. In the proposed neural circuit for learned fear, the state of the ANS is altered by what neural connection? a. Efferents from central nucleus project to hypothalamus 12. What two brain structures appear to be most important for several different emotions a. Amygdala and hypothalamus 13. What is some of the common side effects of frontal lobotomy in humans a. Blunting emotional response, inappropriate behaviors, trouble concentrating (easily distracted) 14. T/F empirical evidence shows the clear connection between androgen levels and aggression in animals a. True 15. What is sham rage? a. Display aggression but don’t act on it b. Least provocation 16. Removal of what areas lead to sham rage? a. Both cerebral hem (telecephalon) 17. Which brain structures are implicated in predatory aggression? a. Lateral hypothalamus b. When lateral hypothalamus was stimulated, predatory aggression was found 18. Which behavior is associate dwiht high levels of activity in sympathetic divison of ANS a. Affective aggression 19. How is affective aggression characterized a. Vocalizations, adopting threatening or defensive postures, high levels of sympathetic activity 20. What is the role of hypothalamus in affective aggression? a. Stimilating medial hypothalamus causes affective aggression 21. T/F Affective aggression is a an attack against diff species for food a. F – it is predatory aggression CHAPTER 19 1. What is an EEG? a. Measurement device – provides glimpse of activity of cerebral cortex 2. What is EEG measuring in brain a. Dendrites of pyramidal neurons in cerebral cortex 3. Why does sync activity produce largest reading of EEG a. Tiny signals sum up to produce one large surface signal 4. What evidence suggests that sleep mechanisms are localized to specific regions of brain a. Neural recordings of brain when we are asleep 5. T/F EEG amplitude is high when we are actively processing information a. F – it is low 6. Purpose of cortical rhythms seen on EEG during sleep? a. Display the way the brain is disconnecting cortex from sensory input 7. Which of walter freemans ideas represent the coordination of a. Sensory & motor systems of awake brain are often synchronously active 8. What is most extreme form of synchronosu brain activity a. Seizures 9. Which parts of brain might be involved in partial seizures in deja vu or hallucinations? a. Cortex of temporal lobes 10. When someone has epilsepy or seizures, they are prescribed benzos or barbiturates. How does this work to suppress seizures? a. Prolonging inhibitory actions of GABA 11. What is non rem sleep? a. State in which brain does not usually generate complex dreams and with very little brain activity 12. What are ultradian rhythm a. Cycle during sleep between slow wave (75%) and rem (25%) 13. What happens to cortical control of movement during REM sleep? a. Muscles controlling eye movement are extremely active but rest of body is basically paralyzed 14. Why is REM sleep referred to as paradoxical sleep? a. Brain waves are very similar between REM sleep and awake b. But you cant act on it in REM 15. T/F each REM period is followed by about 30 mins of nonrem sleep before next REM period can begin a. T 16. T/F areas of brain that show heightened activity during REM sleep include extra striate cortical areas and parts of the limbic system a. T 17. How much total sleep do bottlenose dolphins get from sleeping one hemisphere at a time? a. 12 hours 18. Activation-synthesis hypothesis  a. Dreams are associations and memories of the cerebral cortex that are elicited by the random discharges of the pons during REM sleep 19. Sleep and wake neurons are part of which system? a. Diffuse modulatory neurotransmitter system 20. What brain regions and associated transmitters are associated with changes in awakening and states of arousal? a. Raphae nuclei (serotonin), locus coeruleus (norepinephrine) and brainstem and forebrain (acetylcholine) 21. Effect of adenosine agonist on sleep? a. Promotes sleep 22. What are circadian rhythms? a. Physiological functions that change according to daily cycle of light/dark 23. Free running circadian rhythm? a. Rhythm of activity and rest in animals deprived of zeitgebers 24. A a. Clock genes – clock feedbac of gene expression - protein presence decreases gene expression in pattern that is in line with circadian rhythm 25. Super Chapter 20 & 21 1. What argument / statement best represents why scientists think about how animals communicate with each other? a. Gestures and vocalizations 2. Why are chimpanzees unable to speak human languages? a. Vocal tract not structured to make language sounds 3. What did scientists observe about language areas of the brain in 3 month old infants using neuroimaging? a. Language areas in the brain responds to spoken words in a similar way to how it does in an adult 4. What language deficit was observed with individuals with the mutation in the FOXP2 gene? a. Verbal dyspraxia – inability to produce movements needed for speech 5. We know through family case study that FOXP2 gene is critical for human language. What do we know about the human version of this gene vs other primates? a. FOXP2 (humans) vs Foxp2 (animal gene) b. Difference in 2 amino acids 6. What is aphasia? a. Partial or complete loss of language abilities following brain damage 7. T/F effects of cortical lesion in bilingual person depends on the order in which languages were learnt, fluency achieved in each language and how recently the language was learnt a. TRUE! 8. If a person does learn 2 languages at the same time early in life, what is the probable impact of the lesion affecting the cortical areas? a. Both languages are similarly affected with similar deficits 9. Where is broca's area found? a. Region of left frontal lobe 10. Where is the language area known as Wernicke’s area found? a. Left superior surface of temporal lobe between auditory cortex and angular gyrus 11. What are the characteristics of Wernicke’s aphasia a. Speech is fluent but poor comprehension of language 12. What is the effect of lesions in Broca’s area? a. Inability to produce speech but comprehension is intact b. Understand what we ask but cant produce speech, they realize it and frustrates them i. On tip of their tongue 13. Wilder Penfield showed that electrical stimulation of Broca's & Wernicke’s causes what effect? a. Produces aphasic arrest – can’t produce speech or language b. Proves that Broca,Wernicke, motor cortex and angular gyrus is involved in speech 14. Conduction aphasia results from which type of brain lesion? a. Lesion that causes disconnect Broca’s area from Wernicke’s area 15. The Wernicke-Geschwind model of language processing predicted the key anatomical elements for language processing in the brain. What are the key elements? a. Wernicke’s area, Broca’s area, arcuate fasciculus & angular gyrus 16. What is the term for the inability to find words? a. Anomia 17. What do cases of aphasia in deaf people using ASL reveal about language processing in the brain? a. Broca’s & Wernicke’s aphasia can occur in deaf people, leading us to believe that these areas affect language processing and not just speech 18. What is one argument that reflects the weakness in language models of processing? a. Most aphasia involves speech and comprehension deficits – no linear pattern that just one area is implicated in one 19. What is the Wada procedure? a. Anesthetization of one hemisphere at a time to determine hemispheric dominance of speech b. Most humans left is dominant 20. 90% of humans are right handed, what is the percentage of hand dominance in other animals? a. 50% 21. What describes the behavior of subjects with the split brain (split corpus callosum) a. Behave as if they had two separate brains b. Can’t see things in the left visual field 22. In what tasks are the non-dominant hemispheres superior to the left (in most humans) a. Drawing or copying figures containing 3D perspectives 23. T/F language processing is exclusively a function of the cerebral cortex? a. FALSE – although most of the structures involved are in cerebral, structures like brain stem are involved in language processing, 24. As the brain enters the DMN what happens differently in brain activity between performing a task and not a. Performing task – brain activity decreases b. Rest – brain activity increases 25. According to the internal mentation hypothesis, the DMN is most active when we are doing what? a. Daydreaming, thinking and remembering (autobiographical memories) 26. T/F according to internal mentation hypothesis about the DMN, even when we are at rest, we must be broadly monitoring our environment a. FALSE – it is the sentinel hypothesis 27. Define attention a. Ability to focus on one aspect of sensory input 28. Do you think we can interpret all sensory info coming into our brain? a. No meow 29. What is an example of endogenous attention/ top-down attention? a. Goal directed behavior, looking out for something b. E.g. paying attention in class, finding waldo? Lol 30. What is the result of pulvinar (thalamus) lesions in the visual field? a. Slows down response to stimuli on contralateral side 31. What is the effect on attention of an injection of bicuculline into the pulvinar nucleus a. Opposite effect of pulvinar lesion b. Facilitates shifting attention to the contralateral side 32. Effect of muscimol injection? a. Same as pulvinar lesion 33. Which of the following regions is not a part of the frontoparietal attention network? a. Prefrontal cortex b. Hypothalamus c. The FEF d. Lateral intraparietal cortex (LIP) 34. What helps explain how certain visual features grab one's attention? a. Construction of priority map (salient stimuli) by LIP 35. How does e stimulation of neurons in FEF affect detection threshold? a. Improves detection by lowering threshold of detection 36. What is meant by the neural correlates of consciousness (NCC) a. Minimal neuronal event sufficient for us to perceive consciousness 37. Binocular rivalry experiments have been used to study neural correlates of consciousness Chapter 22 General paresis of the insane (syphilis) what are the common symptoms? ○ Mania → cog deterioration → paralysis & death What is the most common psychiatric disorder? ○ Anxiety disorders Common symptoms of panic attacks ○ Intense terror, palpitations, sweating, increased heart rate What characterises agoraphobia? ○ Anxiety about difficulty or embarrassment of being able to escape a situation Common symptoms of OCD? ○ Recurrent and obtrusive thoughts Which of the hypothalamic neurons are activated during the humoral stress response? ○ Parvocellular CRH neurons in PVN of hypothalamus Injecting CRH into experimental animals would produce what type of behavior? ○ Increase anxiety related behavior ○ Flight or fight response Hyperactive amygdala and diminished activity in hippocampus = anxiety What is the role of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis in anxiety disorders? ○ Activate HPA axis and stress response Role of hippocampus in stress response? ○ Suppresses release of CRH from hypothalamus ○ Leads to stress response Which class of drugs is most commonly used in treatment of ACUTE anxiety? ○ Benzos What are the two major classes of drugs for anxiety disorders? ○ Benzos + SSRI What are some of the symptoms of major depression? ○ Insomnia, loss of appetite, fatigue, feeling of worthlessness and guilt, diminished activity to concentrate + suicidal ideation What characterizes hypomania ○ Increased efficiency, accomplishment, or creativity What is the effect of lithium on the NS? ○ Prevents normal turnover of PIP2 in the neuron Side effects of reserpine (blood pressure medication)? ○ Severe depression What is one environmental factor that is known to contribute to mood and anxiety disorders? ○ Childhood abuse & neglect How would a behaviorist treat maladaptive behavioral disorders? ○ Reinforce new behaviors What describes schizophrenia? ○ Loss of contact with reality and disruption of thought ○ +’ve (added symptoms) symptoms ○ –’ve (diminished skills that we have) symptoms Chapter 23 – wiring the brain Multiple cell types including neurons and glia can arise from the same precursor cell. What are these called? ○ Multipotent stem cells Cortical neurons in layers 2–6 are generated from the same or different precursor cells? ○ Same ○ Found in ventricular zone or dorsal telen Which cells provide the scaffolding for cell migration in the developing cortex? ○ Radial glial cells What is the cortical plate? ○ Layer formed by neural precursor cells that become the cortex (in adult) Describe the subplate layer ○ Transient layer below the cortical plate that contains the first neural precursor cells to migrate from the ventricular zone What is the function of subplate neurons? ○ Attract appropriate thalamic axons to diff parts of the developing cortex What is the growth cone? ○ Growing tip of neurite What is the function of the proteins secreted by the cells of the ventral midline of the spinal cord? ○ Attract (netrin) and repel (slit) growing axons to help them cross the midline ○ Netrin and slit are proteins ○ CHEMOATTRACTION & CHEMOREPULSION Broadly what described the chemoaffinity hypothesis? ○ Chemical markers on growing axons are matched with complementary chemical markers on their targets ○ Telling axons where to go and what their target is How do we think synapses are validated? ○ Synaptic activity consistently correlates with a strong post synaptic response What statement do we think explains “neurons that fire together, wire together” ○ Synapse is strengthened when presynaptic axon is active at the same time as the postsynaptic axon What is apoptosis? ○ Programmed cell death ○ Balances the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons? What is central to apoptosis? ○ Competition for trophic factors Define synaptic capacity? ○ Finite number of synapses that can be received by a neuron What is a valid hypothesis for why a critical period ends? ○ Plasticity diminishes when axon growth seizes ○ E.g. difficulty learning language when we are older Why are the activity patterns arising in the two eyes not correlated with each other? ○ Retinal activity is generated independently in the two retinas Chapter 24 Which type of memory is used for skills, habits and behaviors? ○ Procedural memory Which type of memory can be accessed for conscious recollection? ○ Declarative memory Which kind of learning involves a change in behavioral response that occurs over time in response to a single type of stimulus? ○ Nonassociative learning What do we mean by memory consolidation? ○ Short term → long term Efficient performance in the standard radial arm maze (not going down the same arm twice), what type of memory? ○ Working memory When a patient cannot remember events that occurred prior to a trauma or injury, what type of amnesia is that? ○ Retrograde Delayed non match to sample task (DNMS) – matching task ○ Recognition memory What test is often used to test working memory in humans? ○ Wisconsin card-sorting test What did Lashley conclude about the memory engram after studying maze learning in rats with various sized cortical lesions ○ He thought all cortical areas contribute equally to memory ○ But the current interpretation is that all cortical areas do not contribute equally to all memories What is donald hebbs cell assembly theory? ○ Representation of object consists of all cells activated by the stimulus What brain regions are important for declarative memory consolidation? ○ Hippocampus, subiculum, entorhinal cortex, perirhinal cortex, and parahippocampal cortex What type of memory deficit occurred in patient HM after the removal of the medial temporal lobe from both hemispheres ○ Anterograde amnesia – unable to form memories after removal Patient HM ○ Anterograde amnesia ○ Working memory & procedural memory in tact What are the characteristics of Korsakoff’s syndrome? ○ Severe anterograde amnesia & variable retrograde amnesia + apraxia/agnosia/deficit in executive function ○ Importantly – confusion, confabulations (false memories) & apathy What causes Korsakoff’s syndrome? ○ Thiamin deficiency from anorexia, stomach cancer and gastric bypass ○ Alcoholism  How do rats with hippocampal lesions behave in the radial arm maze when every arm is baited? ○ Go down same arm more than once What are hippocampal place cells? ○ Selectively respond when animal is in particular place in environment Which brain area is implicated in procedural memory ○ Striatum What evidence supports the idea that the striatum is responsible for procedural memory in humans as well ○ Patients with Parkinsons disease shows procedural memory deficits Chapter 25 What happens to a memory if some neurons in that neuronal network storing information start dying? ○ Graceful degradation – representations blend together (one memory gets confused with each other) By what means does the entorhinal cortex send information to the hippocampus? ○ Via the perforant path Entorhinal cortex is main input to hippocampus What is the role of the NMDA receptor in long term potentiation (LTP)? ○ Coincidence detector – regulates calcium entry through nma receptors only when pre and post synaptic elements are active at the same time How can calcium entry through the NMDA receptor trigger both LTP and LTD? ○ Via Ca concentrations ○ High Ca concentrations activate protein kinases (LTP) ○ Modest Ca concentrations activate protein phosphatases (LTD) LTD and LTP in C1 of the hippocampus reflects the bidirectional regulation of which 2 processes? ○ Phosphorylation ○ Number of post synaptic AMPA receptors What is required for converting temporary changes into long term memory ○ Protein synthesis What is synaptic modification threshold? ○ Value of NMDA receptor activation, between that required for LTD and LTP, at which there is no net change What term refers to the concept that the rules of synaptic plasticity change depending on the history of synaptic or cellular activity? ○ Metaplasticity – plasticity of plasticity