Podcast
Questions and Answers
What happens to the external intercostal muscles when there is damage below the C5 segment?
What happens to the external intercostal muscles when there is damage below the C5 segment?
- They function normally due to diaphragm compensation.
- They stop functioning due to loss of impulses. (correct)
- They become overactive without control.
- They continue to receive impulses from the brain.
If a person experiences spinal cord transection above C5, what is the immediate outcome on respiration?
If a person experiences spinal cord transection above C5, what is the immediate outcome on respiration?
- No respiratory muscles receive impulses. (correct)
- Breathing becomes more efficient.
- The person can still breathe with external assistance.
- Only the diaphragm continues to function.
What is the risk if artificial respiration is not initiated within five minutes following severe spinal cord injury?
What is the risk if artificial respiration is not initiated within five minutes following severe spinal cord injury?
- Temporary breathing difficulties.
- Loss of ability to feel pain.
- Irreversible brain neuron death begins. (correct)
- Increased muscle control in the trunk.
Which scenario is most likely to result in damage above the C5 segment?
Which scenario is most likely to result in damage above the C5 segment?
What is a primary consequence of spinal shock immediately following a spinal cord injury?
What is a primary consequence of spinal shock immediately following a spinal cord injury?
Why is the diaphragm still able to receive impulses despite damage below C5?
Why is the diaphragm still able to receive impulses despite damage below C5?
What occurs if a person survives severe spinal cord injury while lacking the ability to ventilate lungs?
What occurs if a person survives severe spinal cord injury while lacking the ability to ventilate lungs?
What is the primary function of ascending sensory pathways?
What is the primary function of ascending sensory pathways?
Following damage above C5, which respiratory muscle is predominantly impacted?
Following damage above C5, which respiratory muscle is predominantly impacted?
Which statement accurately describes the pyramidal pathway?
Which statement accurately describes the pyramidal pathway?
What triggers phasic stretch reflexes?
What triggers phasic stretch reflexes?
What is the main role of the Golgi tendon organ in reflex functions?
What is the main role of the Golgi tendon organ in reflex functions?
Which reflex is primarily responsible for supporting the body when standing up?
Which reflex is primarily responsible for supporting the body when standing up?
What defines the function of the crossed extensor reflex?
What defines the function of the crossed extensor reflex?
Which pathway is primarily responsible for adjusting and regulating movement?
Which pathway is primarily responsible for adjusting and regulating movement?
Which reflex is characterized by its initiation via nociceptive stimuli?
Which reflex is characterized by its initiation via nociceptive stimuli?
How are rhythmic reflexes defined in terms of muscle activity?
How are rhythmic reflexes defined in terms of muscle activity?
What is the consequence of a transection above the cervical 5th segment?
What is the consequence of a transection above the cervical 5th segment?
Which areas of the spinal cord are primarily responsible for parasympathetic reflexes?
Which areas of the spinal cord are primarily responsible for parasympathetic reflexes?
Which of the following statements is true regarding spinal shock?
Which of the following statements is true regarding spinal shock?
What percentage of lung ventilation is provided by the diaphragm?
What percentage of lung ventilation is provided by the diaphragm?
Which spinal cord segments are responsible for innervating the diaphragm?
Which spinal cord segments are responsible for innervating the diaphragm?
What is the role of the medullary respiratory center?
What is the role of the medullary respiratory center?
Which condition is a main contributor to the occurrence of spinal shock?
Which condition is a main contributor to the occurrence of spinal shock?
What role do T segments in the spinal cord play?
What role do T segments in the spinal cord play?
What is the primary role of the highest autonomic center in the hypothalamus?
What is the primary role of the highest autonomic center in the hypothalamus?
Which hypothalamic structure is primarily responsible for hunger regulation?
Which hypothalamic structure is primarily responsible for hunger regulation?
Which function is associated with the anterior hypothalamus?
Which function is associated with the anterior hypothalamus?
How does the hypothalamus regulate sleep behavior?
How does the hypothalamus regulate sleep behavior?
What is a function of the ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus?
What is a function of the ventromedial nucleus of the hypothalamus?
Which area of the hypothalamus is involved in thermoregulation?
Which area of the hypothalamus is involved in thermoregulation?
Which functions are regulated by the neuroendocrine cells in the medial and lateral pre-optic nuclei?
Which functions are regulated by the neuroendocrine cells in the medial and lateral pre-optic nuclei?
Which hypothalamic structure helps regulate circadian rhythms?
Which hypothalamic structure helps regulate circadian rhythms?
What is the consequence of damage to the cerebellum related to eyeball movement?
What is the consequence of damage to the cerebellum related to eyeball movement?
Which of the following is a role of the hypothalamus in stress regulation?
Which of the following is a role of the hypothalamus in stress regulation?
What happens to throw precision immediately after wearing glasses that shift the visual field laterally?
What happens to throw precision immediately after wearing glasses that shift the visual field laterally?
What type of damage to the cerebellum is typically non-reversible?
What type of damage to the cerebellum is typically non-reversible?
Which condition indicates an inability to maintain equilibrium when the eyes are closed?
Which condition indicates an inability to maintain equilibrium when the eyes are closed?
How does damage to the cerebellum affect finger-nose coordination?
How does damage to the cerebellum affect finger-nose coordination?
What describes the characteristic of intention tremor as it approaches its target?
What describes the characteristic of intention tremor as it approaches its target?
What does dysdiadochokinesia involve?
What does dysdiadochokinesia involve?
What is a consequence of cerebellar damage when a person wears glasses that distort their visual field?
What is a consequence of cerebellar damage when a person wears glasses that distort their visual field?
What condition is described by the inability to predict the distance to an object?
What condition is described by the inability to predict the distance to an object?
What common symptom is associated with cerebellar damage impacting coordination?
What common symptom is associated with cerebellar damage impacting coordination?
What is typically observed in the motor responses of a person with cerebellar damage?
What is typically observed in the motor responses of a person with cerebellar damage?
What key role does the cerebellum play in speech?
What key role does the cerebellum play in speech?
What type of corrective action occurs immediately after wearing glasses that wrongly shift the visual field?
What type of corrective action occurs immediately after wearing glasses that wrongly shift the visual field?
In which scenario might you see symptoms of cerebellar damage if a person is stationary?
In which scenario might you see symptoms of cerebellar damage if a person is stationary?
What leads to the observation of nystagmus?
What leads to the observation of nystagmus?
What is the result of damage to the secondary hearing area?
What is the result of damage to the secondary hearing area?
Which area is responsible for coordinating both head and eye movements?
Which area is responsible for coordinating both head and eye movements?
What is apraxia associated with?
What is apraxia associated with?
Which mental functions are primarily associated with tertiary cortical areas?
Which mental functions are primarily associated with tertiary cortical areas?
What characterizes the change in behavior observed in Phineas Gage after his accident?
What characterizes the change in behavior observed in Phineas Gage after his accident?
In functioning asymmetry, which type of dominance is related to the better analysis of visual signals?
In functioning asymmetry, which type of dominance is related to the better analysis of visual signals?
Which area is primarily responsible for speech coordination?
Which area is primarily responsible for speech coordination?
What is the consequence of damage to the secondary visual area?
What is the consequence of damage to the secondary visual area?
Which function is NOT associated with tertiary cortical areas?
Which function is NOT associated with tertiary cortical areas?
What does sensory dominance refer to?
What does sensory dominance refer to?
What type of movements does the secondary supplementary area coordinate?
What type of movements does the secondary supplementary area coordinate?
What is indicated by the term 'functional asymmetry' in the brain?
What is indicated by the term 'functional asymmetry' in the brain?
What does auditory dominance in the brain imply?
What does auditory dominance in the brain imply?
Flashcards
Spinal shock
Spinal shock
A consequence of high spinal cord transection, often observed after spinal cord damage.
High spinal cord transection
High spinal cord transection
A complete cut of the spinal cord at a higher level, typically in the cervical area (above C5).
C5 spinal cord segment
C5 spinal cord segment
Critical spinal cord segment affecting respiratory functions, and, if damaged, could lead to severe harm or death
Respiratory system
Respiratory system
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Diaphragm
Diaphragm
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Phrenic nerve
Phrenic nerve
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Autonomic reflex
Autonomic reflex
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Autonomic centers
Autonomic centers
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Ascending Pathways
Ascending Pathways
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Descending Pathways
Descending Pathways
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Pyramidal Pathways
Pyramidal Pathways
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Extrapyramidal Pathways
Extrapyramidal Pathways
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Stretch Reflex (Phasic)
Stretch Reflex (Phasic)
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Stretch Reflex (Tonic)
Stretch Reflex (Tonic)
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Golgi Tendon Reflex
Golgi Tendon Reflex
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Flexor Reflex
Flexor Reflex
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Crossed Extensor Reflex
Crossed Extensor Reflex
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Rhythmic Reflexes
Rhythmic Reflexes
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Spinal cord damage above C5
Spinal cord damage above C5
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Spinal cord damage below C5
Spinal cord damage below C5
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Respiratory center impulses
Respiratory center impulses
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Motor neurons
Motor neurons
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External intercostal muscles
External intercostal muscles
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Irreversible brain damage
Irreversible brain damage
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Cerebellar Function in Motor Tasks
Cerebellar Function in Motor Tasks
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Cerebellar Damage Signs
Cerebellar Damage Signs
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Cerebellar Damage Causes
Cerebellar Damage Causes
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Dysequilibrium
Dysequilibrium
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Dysmetria
Dysmetria
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Ataxia
Ataxia
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Intention Tremor
Intention Tremor
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Dysdiadochokinesia
Dysdiadochokinesia
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Dysarthria
Dysarthria
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Nystagmus
Nystagmus
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Cerebellum & Vision Correction
Cerebellum & Vision Correction
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Alcohol's Impact on Cerebellum
Alcohol's Impact on Cerebellum
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Reversible Cerebellar Damage
Reversible Cerebellar Damage
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Cerebellar Function & Eye Movement
Cerebellar Function & Eye Movement
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Hypotonia
Hypotonia
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Hypothalamus Location
Hypothalamus Location
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Autonomic Control (Hypothalamus)
Autonomic Control (Hypothalamus)
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Endocrine Control (Hypothalamus)
Endocrine Control (Hypothalamus)
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Thirst Regulation (Hypothalamus)
Thirst Regulation (Hypothalamus)
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Hunger/Satiety (Hypothalamus)
Hunger/Satiety (Hypothalamus)
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Sleep Regulation (Hypothalamus)
Sleep Regulation (Hypothalamus)
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Thermoregulation (Hypothalamus)
Thermoregulation (Hypothalamus)
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Circadian Rhythms(Hypothalamus)
Circadian Rhythms(Hypothalamus)
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Secondary Hearing Area
Secondary Hearing Area
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Hearing Agnosia
Hearing Agnosia
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Secondary Motor Area
Secondary Motor Area
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Hand Control Area
Hand Control Area
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Eye Control Area
Eye Control Area
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Speech Area
Speech Area
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Secondary Supplementary Area
Secondary Supplementary Area
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Tertiary Cortical Areas
Tertiary Cortical Areas
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Wernicke's Area
Wernicke's Area
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Functional Asymmetry
Functional Asymmetry
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Sensory Dominance
Sensory Dominance
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Visual Dominance
Visual Dominance
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Hearing Dominance
Hearing Dominance
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Somatosensory Dominance
Somatosensory Dominance
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Study Notes
Central Nervous System
- Motor hierarchy arranges centers into three levels based on their input in movement regulation
- Highest level (secondary and tertiary cortical areas) generates the general plan of movement, analyzing sensory information, and remembering
- Middle level (primary cortical areas and subcortical centers) splits the general plan into programs, regulating movement
- Lowest level (lower motor neurons in the spinal cord) activates skeletal muscles, enabling movement
- There is a constant interaction between levels, with feedback from lower levels informing higher centers and modifying movement plans.
Functional Anatomy of the Spinal Cord
- Spinal cord consists of white matter surrounding grey matter
- White matter is made of nerve fibers for conductive pathways
- Grey matter consists of nerve cell bodies and synapses
- Afferent fibers (bringing information into the spinal cord) are in the dorsal root
- Efferent fibers (taking information out of the spinal cord) are in the anterior root
- Conductive function is related to the conductive pathways in the white matter
- Reflex function is related to the reflexes organized through the spinal cord
- Ascending pathways carry sensory information to the brain
- Descending pathways carry motor signals from the brain to the spinal cord
- Reflexes (like stretch reflexes) are organized through the spinal cord.
Early and Late Consequences of Spinal Shock
- Spinal shock is a result of high spinal cord transection
- Consequences depend on the level of the transection
- Above C5 typically leads to death
- Below C5, potentially results in spinal shock, which impacts respiratory function
- Respiratory muscles (diaphragm and external intercostals) depend on impulses from the CNS
- Muscles below the injury do not receive impulses from respiratory center so can't function
- Damage above C5 means respiratory center cannot send impulses to muscles
- If not treated quickly, irreversible brain injury can result.
Functions of the Medullary Region and Pons
- Medullary region and pons are areas of the brainstem, immediately above the spinal cord
- Conductive pathways through them join the spinal cord and the brain
- Reflex functions (such as breathing, heart rate control, and defense reflexes)
- Vital reflexes are important for survival
Functions of Midbrain
- Located above the pons
- Two functions: conductive and reflex
- Conductive pathways connect the spinal cord and the brain
- Reflex actions (visual orientation)
Functions of Cerebellum
- Control motor activity (predicts the direction and intensity of muscle contractions)
- Afferent information from everywhere informs the cerebellum about current movements
- Plays important role in tasks like equilibrium control, coordinating and controlling muscle contractions, adjustments of ongoing movements.
- Contains four key groups of nuclei (for a few different functional areas)
- Different functional zones within the cerebellum (Vermis, hemispheres, flocculonodular lobe)
Functional Parts of Cerebellum & Damage Consequences
- Cerebellum is divided into three lobes (posterior, anterior, and flocculonodular) for different functional zones.
- Damage to the cerebellum leads to problems executing movements, balance issues, or emotional disturbances.
Functions of Hypothalamus
- Regulates behavioral reactions and emotions, in concert with the autonomic, endocrine, and somatic nervous systems.
- Controls thirst, satiety, sleep, body temperature, sexual function, stress reaction, and biological rhythms
Functions of Thalamus
- Relay information going to the cerebral cortex
- Connects various centers in the brain for common functions (like visual and auditory to sensory areas of the brain)
- Plays a role in regulating emotions, sleep-wake cycles, alertness, and attention.
Functions of Basal Ganglia
- Encode decisions to move
- Regulate movements
- Regulate expressions of emotions
Functions of Hippocampus and Amygdaloidal Nuclei
- Located in the temporal lobe
- Learning, spatial orientation, and memory
- Damage leads to amnesia, trouble with spatial tasks and learning new information.
- May play a role in social and emotional processes.
Circadian Rhythms & Sleep
- Circadian rhythms are daily cycles (like sleep-wake)
- The suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the hypothalamus controls circadian rhythms.
- Affected by light (zeitgebers)
- Regulates hormones, body temperature, mood, and alertness in a daily pattern.
Speech Mechanism
- Three processes: phonation (sound production), resonance (modification of sound by the vocal tract), and articulation (shaping sounds into words)
- Vocal cords vibrate to produce sounds.
- Larynx, pharynx, mouth, nose modify sound.
- Broca's area (generating speech) and Wernicke's area (comprehension).
Language Areas (Cerebral Cortex) and Consequences of Damage
- Broca's area: responsible for language production.
- Wernicke's area: involved in language comprehension.
- Damage to either one leads to aphasia (language disorder)
Functional Asymmetry
- The dominance of a particular cortical area on one side of the brain → usually corresponds to handedness
- For example, most right-handed people have language dominance in the left hemisphere.
Calcium Metabolism and Hormone Control
- Calcium is needed for numerous processes in the body
- Parathyroid hormone (PTH) → increases calcium blood levels
- Vitamin D (calcitriol) → regulates calcium absorption and regulation
- Calcitonin → reduces calcium blood levels, decreasing osteoclast activity.
Endocrine Functions of the Pancreas (Somatostatin & Glucagon)
- Secretions are controlled by various factors
- Somatostatin inhibits other pancreatic hormones
- Glucagon raises blood sugar
Insulin Synthesis and Regulation of Secretion
- Insulin regulates blood glucose levels.
- Produced by pancreatic islet cells (the β cells).
- Regulated by blood glucose levels
- Affects different body tissues for its action.
Effects of Insulin
- Increases glucose uptake by cells to use for energy.
- Reduces breakdown of glycogen, fat, and protein.
- Promotes growth and repair of tissues.
Glucose Tolerance Test
- Measures how well the body regulates blood sugar after consuming sugar.
- Diabetes is often detected with a glucose tolerance test.
Effects of Insulin Deficiency (Diabetes Mellitus)
- Diabetes is a group of diseases characterized by elevated blood glucose.
- Results from problems with insulin secretion, insulin action, or both.
- Effects include increased glucose in the blood (hyperglycemia), which can cause damage to tissues (especially blood vessels).
- Glucose loss increase (through kidneys)
Sex Hormones and Regulation of Sexual Function
- Male: Testosterone (regulated by LH and GnRH)
- Female: Estrogen and Progesterone (regulated by FSH and LH and GnRH)
- Important for sexual development of both sexes, reproduction, and associated physical characteristics
Regulation of Male Sexual Function
- Regulation of spermatogenesis and sperm maturation in the testes.
- Regulation of sexual function during intercourse (erection, emission, and ejaculation).
Regulation of Female Sexual Function
- Regulation of menstrual cycle (FSH, LH, estrogen, progesterone).
- Regulation of sexual arousal and orgasm.
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