Nature vs Nurture & Research Methods

• Week 1 focuses on the interplay of nature and nurture in shaping development

Nature vs. Nurture

• Nature refers to genetic inheritance and biological predispositions
• Nurture encompasses environmental influences, experiences, and upbringing
• Modern theories emphasize the interaction of both nature and nurture in development

Research Terms

• The scientific method involves forming hypotheses, conducting experiments, and analyzing results
• Cross-sectional research compares different age groups at one time
• Longitudinal research follows the same individuals over time
• Cross-sequential research combines cross-sectional and longitudinal methods
• A cohort is a group of people sharing a common characteristic, such as birth year
• Ethics in research includes informed consent, voluntary participation, and Institutional Review Board (IRB) oversight

Differential Susceptibility

• Differential susceptibility suggests that some individuals are more sensitive to environmental influences due to genetic factors
• Some children may be more affected by both negative and positive experiences

Critical/Sensitive Period

• Critical period refers to a specific time when a particular event must happen for normal development, like language acquisition
• Sensitive period is a time when a person is particularly open to certain experiences, but development can still occur later

Classical vs. Operant Conditioning

• Classical conditioning involves learning through association, like a dog salivating when hearing a bell (Pavlov)
• Operant conditioning involves learning through reinforcement and punishment (Skinner)

Theorists and Developmental Theories, Lev Vygotsky

• Learning is influenced by social interactions and culture

• Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) is the gap between what a learner can do alone versus with guidance

• Parents respond to infant cries/coos by cuddling and providing toys to stimulate the infant

• When a toddler points to an object, adults give names and definitions to the object

• Parents may or may not listen when a 3-year-old speaks to self during play or movement

• Parents praise a 4-year-old for demonstrating delayed gratification or self-control

• Parents listen to their school-age child's interpretation of events/experiences to allow the child to discover what they can do independently and with help

Theorists and Developmental Theories, Lawrence Kohlberg

• Preconventional stage (toddler/early childhood) is obedience and punishment, self-interest
• Conventional stage (school age) is social approval, law, and order
• Postconventional (adolescent and adult/older adult) is social contract, universal ethical principles

Theorists and Developmental Theories, Jean Piaget

• Sensorimotor stage (0-2 years) is learning through senses and actions
• Preoperational stage (2-6 years) is symbolic thinking, egocentrism
• Concrete operational stage (6-11 years) is logical thinking, conservation
• Formal operational stage (12+ years) is abstract and hypothetical reasoning

Theorists and Developmental Theories, Erik Erikson

• Trust vs. Mistrust (0-1 yr) involves developing trust in caregivers
• Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt (1-3 yrs) involves independence vs. doubt
• Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6 yrs) involves taking initiative vs. guilt over actions
• Industry vs. Inferiority (6-12 yrs) involves mastering skills vs. feeling incompetent
• Identity vs. Role Confusion (adolescence) involves exploring identity vs. confusion
• Intimacy vs. Isolation (young adulthood) involves forming relationships vs. loneliness
• Generativity vs. Stagnation (middle adulthood) involves contributing to society vs. stagnation
• Integrity vs. Despair (late adulthood) involves reflection on life

Theorists and Developmental Theories, Sigmund Freud

• Oral stage (0-1 yr) involves pleasure through the mouth (sucking, feeding)
• Anal stage (1-3 yrs) involves control over elimination
• Phallic stage (3-6 yrs) involves focus on genitals; gender identity forms
• Latency stage (6-11 yrs) involves dormant sexual interest; social skills develop
• Genital stage (adolescence+) involves mature sexual interests

Healthy People 2030 Goals

• The Vision of a society where all people achieve their full potential for health and well-being

Week 2

• Definition: Harmful environmental agents that negatively affect fetal development

Teratogens

• Alcohol can cause Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) with facial deformities, growth delays, and cognitive impairments
• Drugs (e.g., opioids, cocaine) can cause premature birth, withdrawal symptoms, and low birth weight
• Toxoplasmosis can cause brain damage and vision loss
• Radiation & lead exposure increases the risk of birth defects and neurological issues

Teratogens Critical Periods

• Germinal period (0-2 weeks): Teratogens may prevent implantation
• Embryonic period (3-8 weeks): High risk for major birth defects
• Fetal period (9+ weeks): Can affect organ function and brain development

Genetics

• Only one copy of a dominant gene is needed for the trait to be expressed (e.g., Huntington's disease)
• Recessive genes: Must inherit two copies for the trait to appear (e.g., cystic fibrosis, sickle cell anemia)

X-Linked Inheritance

• Traits found on the X chromosome are more common in males since they only have one X chromosome
• Examples: Colorblindness, hemophilia, Duchenne muscular dystrophy
• Punnett Square Analysis: Affected mothers pass X-linked conditions to all sons; fathers cannot pass X-linked traits to sons

Down Syndrome (Trisomy 21)

• Down Syndrome is caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21
• Down Syndrome characteristics: Intellectual disability, distinctive facial features, heart defects, and increased risk of early Alzheimer's
• Risk of Down Syndrome increases with maternal age over 35

Freud's Oral Stage

• Focus: Mouth is the primary source of pleasure (sucking, feeding)
• Successful resolution: Secure attachment, trust in caregivers
• Fixation: Oral habits in adulthood (e.g., smoking, overeating, nail-biting)

Erikson's Trust vs. Mistrust Stage

• Timeframe: Birth to 1 year
• Infants develop trust if their needs (food, comfort, security) are consistently met
• Trust leads to healthy emotional development and confidence in relationships
• Mistrust results in anxiety, fear, and difficulty forming bonds later in life

Piaget: Infant Cognitive Development (Sensorimotor Stage)

• Timeframe: Birth to 2 years
• Primary Circular Reactions (0-4 months): Reflexes, early habits
• Secondary Circular Reactions (4-12 months): Exploring the world, cause and effect
• Tertiary Circular Reactions (12-24 months): Problem-solving, trial-and-error learning
• Object Permanence: Develops around 8 months – the understanding that objects exist even when out of sight

Infant Anxiety

• Stranger Anxiety (6-9 months): Fear of unfamiliar people
• Separation Anxiety (Peaks at 9-12 months): Distress when caregiver leaves; a normal developmental stage

Infant Milestones, Gross Motor Skills

• 3 months: Holds head up
• 6 months: Sits without support
• 9 months: Pulls to stand
• 12 months: Walks independently

Infant Milestones, Fine Motor Skills

• 4 months: Grasps objects
• 6 months: Transfers objects between hands
• 9 months: Pincer grasp (thumb and index finger)
• 12 months: Uses spoon, scribbles

Infant Milestones, Language Development

• 2 months: Cooing
• 4-6 months: Babbling
• 12 months: First words

Infant Growth Percentiles

• Birth weight doubles by 6 months, triples by 1 year
• Length increases by ~50% in the first year
• Growth Charts: Percentile rankings compare baby's height, weight, and head circumference to peers
• 20th percentile: Baby is smaller than 80% of peers, but still within normal range

Infant Safety

• Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS) Prevention
• Back to Sleep: Place infants on their backs to sleep
• No Loose Bedding: Avoid pillows, stuffed animals in the crib
• Room-sharing without bed-sharing reduces risk
• Choking Hazards: Avoid small objects (e.g., grapes, hot dogs, toys with small parts)
• Car Safety: Rear-facing car seat until at least 2 years old
• Drowning Prevention: Never leave infants unattended near water

Abuse & Neglect

• Physical: Hitting, shaking (Shaken Baby Syndrome can cause brain damage)
• Emotional: Verbal abuse, ignoring child's needs
• Neglect: Failing to provide basic necessities (food, shelter, medical care)
• Sexual Abuse: Any form of inappropriate contact

Week 3

• Week 3 focuses on the toddler stage and milestones
• Physical Development: Walking steadily, climbing, improved hand-eye coordination

Toddler Milestones

• Cognitive Development: Symbolic thinking begins, basic problem-solving
• Language Development: Rapid vocabulary growth, short sentences
• Social/Emotional Development: Increased independence, temper tantrums, parallel play

Freud's Anal Stage (1-3 years)

• Focus: toilet training
• Child derives pleasure from controlling bowel and bladder movements
• Overly strict or lenient toilet training can lead to fixation (e.g., anal-retentive or anal-expulsive traits)

Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development

• Autonomy vs. Shame & Doubt (1-3 years): Toddlers assert independence (e.g., dressing themselves, saying “no”)
• Success leads to confidence; failure or excessive criticism leads to shame/doubt
• Initiative vs. Guilt (3-6 years): Preschoolers take initiative in exploring, asking questions, and creating
• If encouraged, they develop leadership and confidence; if restricted, they may feel guilt

Piaget's Cognitive Development (Preschool & School Age)

• Preoperational Stage (Ages 2-6)
• Magical Thinking: Belief that thoughts can influence reality (e.g., “I got sick because I was bad")
• Irreversibility: Inability to mentally reverse a sequence of events (e.g., can't understand undoing an action)
• Conservation: Lack of understanding that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape or appearance (e.g., taller glass holds more water)
• Self-Awareness: Recognizing oneself as a distinct individual
• Classification: Beginning to sort objects based on one characteristic at a time

Language Development

• Fast-Mapping: Quickly learning new words by associating them with known concepts
• Overregularization: Applying grammatical rules incorrectly (e.g., “goed” instead of "went”)

Kohlberg's Preconventional Stage (Moral Development)

• Stage 1 (Obedience & Punishment): Right and wrong are determined by consequences
• Stage 2 (Self-Interest): Actions are guided by personal gain or rewards

Types of Reinforcement

• Positive Reinforcement= Reward for helping mom - Increase help behavior
• Negative reinforcement= Restrict privileges for bad behavior- Increase likelihood of desired behavior happening again
• Negative Punishement= Take away fun and interaction with others/ Ignore behavior- Decrease or stop unwanted behavior

Types of Play (Preschool Years)

• Solitary Play: Playing alone, independent exploration
• Onlooker Play: Watching others play without participating
• Parallel Play: Playing side by side but not interacting
• Associative Play: Sharing materials but without structured interaction
• Cooperative Play: Engaging in organized group play with roles and shared goals

Types of Aggression

• Instrumental Aggression: Used to obtain an object or privilege (common in toddlers)
• Reactive Aggression: Angry retaliation for perceived harm
• Relational Aggression: Verbal or social harm (e.g., gossip, exclusion)
• Bullying Aggression: Repeated, unprovoked attacks on weaker individuals

Week 4

• Erikson's Psychosocial Stage: Industry vs. Inferiority
• Major Task: Mastery of skills
• Industry: Success in personal and social tasks, feeling competent
• Inferiority: Repeated failure leads to feelings of incompetence
• Key Influences: Peers, school achievements, and role models
• Children begin to compare themselves with others and develop self-esteem based on their accomplishments

Piaget's Cognitive Development: Concrete Operational Stage (Ages 7-11)

• Logical Thinking: Understands rules but limited to tangible, observable situations
• Conservation: Understands that quantity remains the same despite changes in shape or appearance
• Classification: Can organize objects into groups based on common characteristics
• Seriation: Ability to arrange items in a logical order (e.g., smallest to largest)
• Cause and Effect: Begins understanding logical sequences of events

Kohlberg's Moral Development: Conventional Stage

• Stage 3: "Good Boy/Good Girl” Orientation (seeks approval from others, actions are based on maintaining relationships)
• Stage 4: "Law and Order” Orientation (moral decisions are based on obeying societal rules and laws, Key Characteristic: Concerned with societal expectations and maintaining order)

Conventional and Preconventional characteristics

• Preconventional level (3-9 year old): avoid consequences/ don't understand rule but understand the negative consequences = lie to avoid trouble
• Conventional level (10 year old): consider to do the right things/ social conventions = understand why there's rules = want to get approval from others

Language Development & Pragmatics

• Pragmatics: The social use of language (e.g., taking turns in conversation, understanding tone)
• Code-Switching: Adjusting language use based on social context (e.g., speaking differently at home vs. school)
• Vocabulary Expansion: Rapid growth of words, improved grammar and sentence structure
• Development of Humor and Metaphors: Understanding jokes, idioms, and non-literal language

Vision

• Myopia (Nearsightedness): Difficulty seeing distant objects clearly, common in school-age children due to increased reading and screen time, correction glasses or contact lenses, early detection is crucial for academic success
• Astigmatism (uneven focusing): A common vision condition where the cornea or lens have an irregular shape causing blur at all distance
• Hyperopic (Farsighted): A vision condition where distant objects appear clearer than close ones because light focuses behind the retina instead of directly on it

ADHD

• Symptoms of ADHD: Inattention (difficulty focusing, forgetfulness, careless mistakes), hyperactivity (excessive movement, difficulty staying seated), impulsivity (blurting out answers, interrupting conversations)
• Impact of ADHD: Can affect academic performance and peer relationships
• Treatment for ADHD: Behavioral therapy, structured routines, and sometimes medication

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD)

• Core Characteristics of ASD: Challenges in social interactions and communication, repetitive behaviors and restricted interests, sensory sensitivities (e.g., dislike of loud noises or certain textures)
• Early intervention for ASD is key for improving communication and social skills
• Support Strategies for ASD: Structured routines, visual supports, and specialized education programs

Types of Bullying

• Physical Bullying: Hitting, pushing, stealing belongings
• Verbal Bullying: Name-calling, insults, threats
• Relational (Social) Bullying: Spreading rumors, exclusion, damaging someone's reputation
• Cyberbullying: Online harassment, spreading harmful content via digital platforms