Nature vs. Nurture in Psychology

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Questions and Answers

What are the main components of heredity as discussed?

Cultural practices and lifestyle choices

Historical events and societal norms

Social behaviors and family history

Biological traits and environmental influences (correct)

What is the primary function of genes in human biology?

To provide the body's building blocks when expressed (correct)

To determine the color of one's eyes

To act as a source of energy for the body

To control the emotional responses of humans

Which type of twins arises from a single fertilized egg that splits?

Hybrid twins

Identical twins (correct)

Fraternal twins

True twins

What does the term 'genome' refer to?

The complete set of genetic material in an organism Signup and view all the answers

What does 'nurture' refer to in the context of human behavior?

Environmental factors and life experiences Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of studying identical twins in psychology?

They can reveal how environment affects behavior despite genetic similarity Signup and view all the answers

How many chromosomes do humans inherit from each parent?

23 pairs Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes fraternal twins from identical twins?

Fraternal twins come from two different eggs fertilized by different sperm Signup and view all the answers

Which factor does NOT affect gene expression according to epigenetics?

Genetic mutations Signup and view all the answers

In the nature versus nurture debate, which aspect is NOT considered part of nurture?

Genetic predispositions Signup and view all the answers

The Russian Fox experiment demonstrated which principle of evolution?

Natural selection through behavioral traits Signup and view all the answers

What is one implication of evolutionary psychology regarding male and female perspectives on sexuality?

Men are more accepting of casual sex than women. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement regarding brain plasticity is true?

Experience plays a significant role in shaping synapse connections. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a common misunderstanding about genetic testing?

It can predict exact future health outcomes. Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary reason women are more selective in mates according to evolutionary psychology?

They have fewer reproductive opportunities due to pregnancy costs. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT considered an epigenetic influence?

Genetic structure Signup and view all the answers

How do the experiences of twins contribute to understanding gene expression?

Their differing experiences can lead to variations in gene expression. Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant impact of parental influence on child development?

It shapes social and emotional learning significantly. Signup and view all the answers

What role does brain plasticity play in recovery from a stroke?

It allows for the creation of new neural pathways. Signup and view all the answers

How do peers influence children's behavior compared to parents?

Peers more significantly shape good and bad habits. Signup and view all the answers

In the context of gender development, how does social learning theory explain the process of gender identity formation?

It suggests children learn their gender roles by observing and imitating others. Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic feature of collectivist cultures as described in the content?

Value placed on team victories. Signup and view all the answers

What are the implications of having a rigid gender norm within society?

It can lead to discrimination and violence. Signup and view all the answers

What can be inferred about brain development from the concept of enriched environments?

They lead to greater stimulation and brain cell development. Signup and view all the answers

How do cultural norms shape acceptable behavior within families?

They establish guidelines that help individuals find their place in society. Signup and view all the answers

Why is peer influence often difficult to track in social development?

It often overlaps with parental guidance. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary development that occurs in the second trimester of pregnancy?

Refinement of motor actions and increased fetal movement Signup and view all the answers

What environmental agents are known to negatively impact fetal development?

Teratogens such as drugs and chemicals Signup and view all the answers

During which trimester does the age of viability outside the body typically begin?

Second trimester Signup and view all the answers

Which maternal characteristic is NOT generally considered to influence fetal development?

Hair color Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following conditions is most dangerous when a mother contracts it during the first trimester?

Rubella Signup and view all the answers

What physical changes in the fetus occur by the end of the third trimester?

Formation of eyebrows and head hair Signup and view all the answers

What is a common consequence of Thalidomide usage during pregnancy?

Missing or deformed limbs Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of vernix in fetal development?

To protect the fetal skin in a water-filled chamber Signup and view all the answers

What occurs immediately after the sperm successfully penetrates the egg?

The egg becomes impenetrable to other sperm. Signup and view all the answers

At what stage does a fertilized egg become an embryo?

After 14 days. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the placenta during development?

To provide respiration and nourishment. Signup and view all the answers

During which period does the growth of the head take precedence over the growth of the body?

Embryonic period. Signup and view all the answers

Which layer of cells develops into the nervous system and skin during embryonic development?

Ectoderm. Signup and view all the answers

What is spina bifida associated with during embryonic development?

Failure of the neural tube to close properly. Signup and view all the answers

What role do teratogens play in prenatal development?

They can cause damage and congenital disabilities. Signup and view all the answers

Which element is considered critical for preventing issues during pregnancy due to maternal influences?

Regular prenatal care. Signup and view all the answers

At what age do children typically begin to show an understanding of object permanence?

12 months Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary process by which infants incorporate new experiences into existing schemas?

Assimilation Signup and view all the answers

Which developmental stage is characterized by a child beginning to use mental representation?

Preoperational Stage Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes the cognitive process where existing schemas are changed or new schemas are created?

Accommodation Signup and view all the answers

What key ability develops in an infant around 18 months, allowing them to hold an image in mind?

Mental representation Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following activities primarily reflects cognitive development in the Sensorimotor Stage for infants aged 12-24 months?

Hitting objects to make noise Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect of memory suggests that infants may learn but not recall those memories later in life?

Infantile amnesia Signup and view all the answers

How does Piaget's theory suggest that children's reasoning changes as they develop?

It becomes more abstract and logical over time. Signup and view all the answers

At what age do most babies typically start to pull to stand and begin cruising along furniture as part of their motor development milestones?

9-12 months Signup and view all the answers

Which factor influences motor development by providing children with opportunities for movement and interaction?

Environment Signup and view all the answers

During which months do infants show significant development in hand-eye coordination and the ability to use a pincher grasp for picking up objects?

9-12 months Signup and view all the answers

What does executive function primarily develop in relation to, according to the content provided?

Thinking and memory Signup and view all the answers

What is one of the first motor skills infants typically display from birth, which is essential for later development?

Grasp reflex Signup and view all the answers

Which developmental aspect is indicated by the ability of infants to understand their position in relation to their environment?

Proprioception Signup and view all the answers

What cognitive skill involves understanding that objects continue to exist even when they are not in sight and typically develops during sensory exploration in infancy?

Object permanence Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following skills includes large body movements such as walking and crawling in infants?

Gross motor skills Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic behavior of an anxious/ambivalent infant when their mother leaves and returns?

They become upset and later want to be close, but then push away. Signup and view all the answers

Which parenting style is characterized by a lack of involvement and responsiveness?

Negligent Signup and view all the answers

What is one major consequence of maternal deprivation in infants raised in inadequate institutions?

They rarely cry and appear forlorn. Signup and view all the answers

Which attachment style is added later to broaden the understanding of child attachment?

Disorganized/disoriented Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary understanding of the effects of prolonged deprivation in children?

It creates alterations in brain serotonin levels. Signup and view all the answers

Which parenting style is known for imposing strict rules without flexibility or conversation?

Authoritarian Signup and view all the answers

What type of attachment is generally developed more securely when children are raised in loving foster homes?

Secure Signup and view all the answers

What stage of moral reasoning describes a focus on punishment and reward?

Preconventional morality Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary factor in secure attachment development according to attachment theories?

Relaxed and attentive caregiving Signup and view all the answers

What does imprinting in animals primarily suggest about early experiences?

It is a survival impulse to follow the first moving object seen. Signup and view all the answers

What type of attachment is characterized by indifference to a caregiver's departure and return?

Insecure avoidant attachment Signup and view all the answers

What impact can early maternal deprivation have on a child's development?

Withdrawal and inability to develop speech Signup and view all the answers

Which factor is essential for the development of attachment according to theories of attachment?

Contact comfort from caregivers. Signup and view all the answers

In Harlow's studies with monkeys, what did the preference for the cloth mother suggest about infant development?

Social support is vital for emotional growth. Signup and view all the answers

What is a common result of insecure anxious attachment when a caregiver leaves?

Panic and mixed reactions upon return Signup and view all the answers

How does prolonged maternal deprivation affect brain development in children?

It causes reductions in brain size and changes in structure. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Cheating in Class

Students caught cheating will receive a zero on the test.
Repeated cheating will result in a zero for the course, suspension, and potential expulsion.
In-class tests will transition to paper-based due to cheating concerns.

Nature vs. Nurture

Nature refers to an individual's biological makeup, including their genes.
Nurture encompasses the environmental factors and experiences that shape an individual.
The Human Genome:
- Contains all an organism's genetic material and instructions for development.
- Shared by all humans and makes us human.
Genes:
- Biochemical units of heredity that make up chromosomes.
- When expressed, they provide the building blocks for the body.
Chromosomes:
- Protein structures containing a single molecule of DNA.
- Humans have 23 pairs (46 total), with 23 from each parent.
DNA (Deoxyribonucleic Acid):
- A molecule containing the entire genetic code.
- Two strands connected by a double helix structure.
Genotype:
- Refers to the complete set of genes an organism inherits from their parents.
Heredity:
- The genetic transfer of traits from parents to offspring.
- Twin studies are used to study the impact of environment on behavior.
- Identical twins share the same genes and often develop similar traits, despite different environments.
Identical Twins:
- Monozygotic twins develop from a single fertilized egg that splits.
Fraternal Twins:
- Dizygotic twins develop from two separate eggs fertilized by different sperm.

Brain Plasticity

Brain development continues throughout life, not just in childhood.
Brain tissue can change and reorganize in response to new experiences, this is known as plasticity.
Brain plasticity allows for the relearning of lost skills, like speech after a stroke, by forming new neural pathways.
An enriched environment leads to more brain cell development.
The first language experiments demonstrate this, showing an impoverished environment leads to a lack of brain cell development.

Influence of Peers & Parents

Children are influenced by both their parents and their peers.
Peer influence is more difficult to trace but can teach new social skills.
Parents have a greater influence on: education, religion, and self-discipline.
Peers have a greater influence on: good and bad habits, popularity, and cooperation skills.

Cultural Influences

Each culture has its own set of norms and standards of acceptable behavior.
Cultures are passed down through generations.
Individualist cultures emphasize personal ideals.
Collectivist cultures value team success over individual success, avoid blunt conflict, and value humility.

Gender Development

Gender is a social construct, not strictly biological.
Rigid gender norms can cause discrimination, violence, and stigma.
There are no significant brain differences between males and females.
Gender roles are expected behaviors for men and women.
Gender identity is a person's sense of being male or female.

Theories of Development

Social learning theory suggests we learn our gender identity in childhood by imitating and observing others.
Gender typing is when children gravitate towards what feels right for their gender.

Human Molecular Behaviour Genetics

Molecular genetics studies the molecular structure and function of genes.
Genetic testing can determine predisposition to certain illnesses and mental health conditions, like autism, ADHD, bipolar, and schizophrenia.
80% of a child's risk for developing autism is genetic.

Theory of Mind

Theory of mind is the ability to understand that others have different thoughts and beliefs.
There is a test to determine theory of mind in children using dolls and a marble.

Epigenetics

Epigenetics explores how environmental factors can influence gene expression without changing DNA.
Environmental, drugs, diet, and social factors can affect gene expression.
Different experiences can impact gene expression in twins, leading to differences despite identical DNA.

Nature vs. Nurture

Both nature (genetics) and nurture (environment) play a role in development.

Evolution of Behaviour

Natural Selection favors genes that increase survival and reproductive success.
Humans have become better at certain tasks as a species due to the need for those skills for survival.
The Russian Fox Experiment demonstrated the evolution of behavior through selective breeding for tameness over 57 generations.

Male-Female Differences in Sexuality

Evolutionary psychology suggests men and women have differing sexual strategies due to the differing costs and benefits of reproduction.
Men are more likely to find casual sex acceptable, while women have a greater cost to promiscuity.
Men prefer women with youthful features and signs of health, as these traits indicate reproductive potential.
Women prefer men who are tall, strong, and successful, as these traits indicate the ability to provide resources.

Experience and Brain Development

Experiences shape the brain, and unused synapses are gradually pruned away, this is a combination of nature and nurture.

Fetal Development

7 weeks after conception the fetus begins to grow and develop.
The fetus begins to kick, turn, and tumble in the third trimester.
The digestive and excretory system begin to work together and the fetus begins to swallow and excrete during the third trimester.
Testosterone is present during the third trimester and results in male genitalia.
During the second trimester the fetus is 7-8" long and weighs 8oz.
The fetus's skeleton hardens and can be seen on ultrasound.
The fetus develops eyebrows, eyelashes, and head hair during the second trimester.
The fetus is covered in vernix which is a white and cheesy substance and lanugo which are fine hairs that fall off.
The organ systems mature during the third trimester and the baby gains weight.
The age of viability for a fetus is between 22-28 weeks. Babies born during this time period may develop delays or deficiencies.
The fetus moves, kicks, and sucks its thumb during the third trimester.
The baby moves into a head-down position during the ninth month of pregnancy.
The vernix protects the baby's skin during pregnancy.

Environmental Influences

During pregnancy environmental influences can impact the development of the fetus.
Teratogens are agents such as drugs, chemicals, viruses, and radiation that can harm the fetus.
95% of fetuses are born without issues.
The higher the dose of teratogens and the more exposure the fetus has the greater the risk of harm.
The most sensitive period for each organ is during rapid growth and development.

Maternal Characteristics

Maternal nutrition, emotional well-being, and age can affect the development of the fetus.

Effects of Teratogens

Each developing structure is most susceptible to damage during the sensitive period and rapid growth period.

Maternal Disease

Rubella is most dangerous during the first trimester.
60-85% of babies whose mothers had rubella in the first trimester have birth defects such as blindness, deafness, cardiac abnormalities, mental issues, and liver and spleen damage.
Toxoplasmosis is a parasite found in cat feces and uncooked meat.
Thalidomide was used to treat morning sickness.
Thalidomide was tested on rats with no side effects. However, many babies born to mothers who took Thalidomide had deformed ears, eyes, hearts, and limbs.

Drugs

FAS is Fetal Alcohol Syndrome.
Fetal alcohol syndrome is a condition that occurs when a mother drinks alcohol during pregnancy.
FAS can cause a variety of physical, cognitive, and behavioral problems in children.

Germinal Period

The egg is 85,000 times the size of a single sperm.
Sperm releases an enzyme that allows it to penetrate the egg.
Once a sperm penetrates the egg it becomes impenetrable so no other sperm can enter.
The sperm and egg fuse into a single cell
The germinal period starts when the ovum is released into the fallopian tube.
Fertilization of the egg by the sperm usually happens within 24 hours.
The fertilized egg travels down the fallopian tube towards the uterus.
The zygote (fertilized egg) travels down the fallopian tube in about 2 days.
The blastocyst is a cluster of divided cells made by the fertilized egg.
The blastocyst implants itself in the side of the uterus.
The side of the uterus is full of tissue, blood, and nutrients, which is what is expelled during menstruation.

Embryonic Period

A zygote is a fertilized egg with 100 cells that becomes increasingly diverse.
A zygote becomes an embryo at about 14 days.
Fewer than half of all fertilized eggs make it through the first two weeks.
The zygote implants in the uterus after about 10 days.
The inner cells of the zygote become the embryo.
The amniotic sac surrounds the developing embryo and protects it from harm.
The chorion develops into the placenta.
The placenta is an organ formed from the lining of the uterus and the chorion.
The placenta is responsible for respiration, nourishment, and the removal of waste.
The umbilical cord connects the embryo to the placenta.
The umbilical cord is a soft tube containing blood vessels.

Period of the Embryo

The embryo grows from 3-8 weeks.
The head grows at a faster rate than the body.
The central axis coincides with the spinal cord.
Three cell layers (ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm) develop rapidly.
The ectoderm becomes the nervous system, skin, hair, nails, teeth, and outer layer of skin and hair.
The mesoderm becomes the muscles, bones, circulatory system, excretory system, and reproductive organs.
The endoderm becomes the digestive system, lungs, urinary tract, and other vital organs.
In the second month, the ears are formed, limb buds form, the brain begins to develop, the upper arms and legs develop first, and the limbs are elongated and separated.
The webbing of the fingers dissolves.
Facial features become distinct.
The embryo is only about 1 inch long but the brain is starting to fire, the kidneys are functioning, and red blood cells are being developed.
Gonads begin to appear but male or female distinguishing factors do not appear yet.

Memory

Memory typically begins developing around 3.5 years old.
Infantile amnesia refers to the inability to recall memories from before this age.
While infants are capable of learning and making memories, these may not be accessible later in life due to lack of verbal labeling and rapid brain development.
An experiment involving 3-month-old infants demonstrated the development of memory:
- Infants were placed in a crib with a ribbon tied to their foot and a mobile.
- As they kicked their legs, the mobile moved.
- After two 9-minute sessions, the mobile was removed.
- A week later, the infants were reintroduced to the mobile and immediately started kicking.
- The other half of the group, two weeks later, did not associate kicking with the mobile, indicating memory fading.
The nervous system retains memories of early experiences.

Cognitive Development

Jean Piaget (1920s) observed that children consistently got the same questions wrong on intelligence tests, leading him to believe it was due to cognitive development.
Piaget's theory proposed that children reason differently at different stages of development (1930s).
Cognitive development involves maturing through schemas, which are mental representations of the world.
Schemas are frameworks that integrate information about people, things, names, and events.
Assimilation is the process of integrating new experiences into existing schemas.
When existing schemas don't fit, accommodation involves modifying existing schemas or creating new ones.
Schema modification can be done through trial and error or guidance from parents.
Piaget believed cognitive development does not progress linearly but in leaps and bounds.

Sensorimotor Stage

Children under 6 months lack object permanence, the understanding that objects continue to exist even when out of sight.
They learn about cause and effect.
Infants explore the world through their mouths.
Between 12-24 months, infants demonstrate an ability to make things last - e.g., hitting an object to make a noise and investigating different aspects of the activity.
This active investigation is most noticeable during feeding times, representing experimentation for learning.
By 18 months, children develop mental representations, allowing them to hold an image in mind beyond immediate experience.

Preoperational Stage

The brain continues to develop rapidly during this stage.
In utero, the brain develops at a rate of ¼ million nerve cells per minute, reaching approximately 28 billion at birth.
Conception to delivery takes around 38 weeks.
The branching of neuronal development facilitates growth, talking, walking, and remembering.
Brain cells are shaped by both heredity and experience.
The frontal cortex experiences the most rapid growth between 3-6 months, involved in higher-level functions.
Senses of sight, hearing, and touch are developing.
Frontal lobe development continues into adulthood.
Executive function, encompassing thinking and memory, is among the last cortical areas to mature. As this occurs, mental abilities surge and neural connections pruned.

Motor Development

Motor development happens in two ways:
- Cephalocaudal: from top to bottom (e.g., head control before walking)
- Proximodistal: from center outward (e.g., arms before hands)
Most babies walk around their first birthday. Tummy time is crucial for walking development as it encourages muscle development.
Rapid development of the cerebellum (old brain) at the back of the brain makes walking possible.
The cerebellum processes input from the spinal cord and senses to coordinate smooth muscle movement.
Proprioception is the understanding of one's position in space and time.

Stages of Motor Development

Newborn (0-2 months): Begins with reflexes including rooting (for feeding), startle (for protection) and grasp. Starts to lift head during tummy time.
2-4 months: Gains more head control, starts pushing up on arms, may swipe or reach at objects (vision is not yet acute).
4-6 months: Sits with support, develops a palmar grip, rolls from tummy to back.
6-9 months: Sits without support, begins to move to sit position, starts crawling or moving about (bum scoot, army crawl), and can pass objects from one hand to another.
9-12 months: Pulls to stand, starts cruising along furniture, develops fine motor skills (pincher grasp), points, stacks objects, improves eye-hand coordination (e.g., feeding themselves, turning pages),

Influences on Motor Development

Genetics: Inherent abilities influence motor development.
Environment: Opportunities for movement, interaction, and exploration play a significant role.
Health and Nutrition: Support muscle and bone development.
Stimulation: Physical and sensory experiences enhance motor learning (e.g., walking on different surfaces).

Attachment

Attachment refers to the close emotional bond between an infant and a caregiver and significantly impacts various aspects of a child's development.
Prolonged deprivation of attachment can lead to physical, psychological and social issues, including alterations in brain serotonin levels.
An example of this is the case of Romanian orphanages where children suffered from the lack of proper care, resulting in diminished language skills, delayed development, and heightened vulnerability to infections.
Children who later found loving foster homes were able to regrow brain matter and make new neural connections.

Stages of Attachment

The attachment process can be studied using a measure known as the "Strange Situation" which allows researchers to observe a child's behavior in a novel situation.
The Strange Situation identifies four different attachment styles:
- Secure Attachment
- Anxious-Ambivalent Attachment
- Anxious-Avoidant Attachment
- Disorganized-Disoriented Attachment

Anxious-Ambivalent Attachment

Anxious-ambivalent infants become distressed when their mother leaves the room and exhibit both a desire for closeness and resistance upon her return.

Parenting Styles

Parenting styles are categorized based on the level of parental control and responsiveness.
- Authoritarian parents are demanding and use punishment to enforce rules.
- Permissive parents are lenient, make few demands, and set few limits.
- Neglectful parents are uninvolved, neither demanding nor responsive, and lack interest in a close relationship with their children.
- Authoritative parents are demanding and responsive, setting rules but also allowing for open discussion and exceptions, particularly with older children.

Adolescence

Adolescence marks a transition between childhood and adulthood.
Brain development continues during this period, with increased cognitive abilities and social awareness.
Adolescents begin to think more about their social standing, their own beliefs, and their place within society.

Moral Reasoning

Moral reasoning refers to the process of making ethical judgments.
Piaget and Kohlberg identified three levels of moral development:
- Preconventional Morality: Individuals focus on personal consequences (punishments and rewards).
- Conventional Morality: This stage emphasizes societal norms and laws.
- Postconventional Morality: Individuals develop their own moral codes and prioritize ethical principles over societal rules.

Theories of Attachment

Harlow's monkey experiment demonstrated the significance of comfort and affection in attachment beyond mere nourishment. Monkeys preferred a cloth mother over a wire mother that provided food, highlighting the crucial role of social support in infant development.
Contact comfort is believed to be vital for attachment, providing innate pleasure for both infant and caregiver and establishing a crucial aspect of their initial bond.
Lorenz studied imprinting in geese, suggesting that infants may imprint on the first moving object they see, creating an irreversible attachment bond.

Types of Attachment

Secure attachment: This style is characterized by exploration when the caregiver is present, distress upon separation, and comfort upon reunion. Secure attachment stems from relaxed, attentive caregiving.
Insecure attachment: Several insecure attachment styles have been identified:
- Insecure-avoidant: Infants exhibit indifference to the caregiver's departure and return.
- Insecure-anxious: Infants show panic during separation and mixed reactions upon reunion.

Deprivation of Attachment

While the negative impact of early maternal deprivation can be substantial, it is crucial to note that the critical period for developing attachment is typically around 60 days for monkeys and 6 months for humans.
Children who experience prolonged deprivation may exhibit withdrawn behavior, fearfulness, and speech difficulties.
Neglect can have lasting effects on the brain, potentially leading to a smaller brain size, decreased surface area, and deeper sulci.

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Explore the concepts of nature and nurture in the context of psychology. Understand how biological makeup and environmental factors influence individual development. Delve into the roles of genes, chromosomes, and DNA in shaping human life.