Natural Law Theory: Stoics & Aristotelian Views

Natural Law Theory

• Natural law theory suggests moral rules are objective, universal truths found in nature.
• The natural law tradition proposes that understanding nature, especially human nature, is sufficient to understand moral demands.
• Natural law is built into the nature of life, making it knowable to all.
• Reason is inherently present in everyone, helping to discern right from wrong and what is best.

The Stoics Interpretation

• The concept of natural law first appeared among the Stoics in the first century B.C.
• The Stoics influenced philosophy by promoting a calm view of life, associating "stoic" with serenity.

Aristotelian Influence

• Aristotle (334-322 B.C) believed nature serves particular purposes, which must be understood.
• Natural law seems mysterious if nature's inherent laws are not recognized.
• Aristotle states that the purpose of an acorn is to become an oak tree.
• Developing from potential to actuality is due to its nature, defining natural law as how things work.
• For Aristotle, following nature is following reason, which leads to goodness and fulfills human existence.

Basic Human Inclinations

• Self-preservation or survival
• Propagation of our species
• Living peacefully with others
• Seeking truth and knowledge

Natural Law and Contraception

• St. Thomas Aquinas interpreted natural law ethics during the Medieval period.
• The natural law become the basis for Catholic morality.
• Roman Catholic opposition to contraception is a concrete example of natural law theory.
• Actions such as anal and oral intercourse and masturbation are deemed morally wrong because they go against nature by not allowing conception.

Central Ideas of Natural Law

• Everything in the world has a reason or purpose.
• This purpose especially applies to humans.
• Humanity has a rational nature.
• Morality is natural and governs human nature.
• Reason allows humans to understand their nature and what is good.
• Natural laws are universal, unchangeable, and the basis for judging cultures.
• Moral laws, based on natural law, have objective validity.
• The fundamental principle: "Do good and avoid evil."

Ethical Principles Under Natural Law

• Principle of Double Effect
• Principle of the Inviolability of Life
• Principle of Forfeiture
• Principle of Totality
• Principle of Stewardship
• Just War Theory
• Justified Rebellion/Revolution

Principle of Double Effect

• Complex situations may blur the lines between good and bad in morality.
• The Principle of Double Effect is a moral principle where an action has both good and bad effects.

Conditions of Double Effect

• An action must inherently be good, neutral, or at least morally indifferent.
• Any evil effect must not be the primary intent but be a regrettable side issue.
• The evil effect cannot be the means to achieve the good effect.
• The good effect must outweigh the evil effect.

Principle of Inviolability of Life

• Human life is a sacred gift from a creator, holding infinite value.
• Human life should never be sacrificed.
• Every human life possesses equal worth and dignity.

Principle of Forfeiture

• A person's life is threatened by someone who is an aggressor.
• The innocent person is one who has not willingly threatened anyone’s life.
• Natural law allows killing a would-be assailant, whose threat forfeits their innocence.

Principle of Totality

• A part of the human body exists for the good of the whole.
• This principle applies when body parts must be removed.
• Each person has the right to live, and actions necessary for protection are justified if unjust harm to others is avoided.

Principle of Stewardship

• Life comes from a creator, implying no one owns anything or their body.
• Humans must care for creation without absolute authority.
• Environmental issues find application in the principle of stewardship.

Just War Theory

• The Just War theory is related to forfeiture, justifying self-defense for a country against an unjust aggressor.
• Only defensive wars employed by a country under attack are justifiable under specific conditions.

Conditions of Just War

• Lawful authority
• Just cause
• Last resort
• Good intention
• Reasonable chance of success
• Right use of means
• Proportional response

Justified Rebellion/Revolution

• War involves armed conflict between nations and is distinct from rebellion.
• Rebellion is an unlawful uprising against the government, like a coup d’etat which disobeys lawful authority.
• Natural law approves violent uprisings against legal authorities in extreme situations.

Conditions of Justified Rebellion

• Manifest long-standing tyranny and oppression
• Exhaustion of peaceful, legal resolutions
• Reasonable probability of success for the revolt
• Proportionate good to damage inflicted
• Decisions from the majority, not private individuals

Critical Assessment of Natural Law

• Affirms the worth and value of human life.
• Provides direction to realities in the cosmos.
• Offers clear guidelines on what is right and wrong.
• Grounds morality in discoverable human nature.
• Emphasizes and promotes human inclinations.
• Aligns with universal values, such as life, truth and goodness.
• Integrates conscience in discerning right and wrong.
• Systematically explains nature and its implications for human actions.
• Provides a religious dimension to morality.
• Rejects moral relativism and subjectivism.
• Provides logical reasons for moral judgements.
• Offers guidelines for complex situations, like double effect and forfeiture.
• Assesses morality on actions like contraception and sex-related actions.
• Offers philosophy alternative to the Divine Command Theory of ethics.
• Follows intuition concerning the objectivity of morality.

Thomas Aquinas

• Aquinas is also know as the Angelic Doctor and Prince of Scholastics
• He relies on Aristotle.
• Actions aim toward ends, with happiness as the final goal.
• Ultimate happiness is unattainable in current life, but it is instead found in heaven with God.

Types of Laws

Eternal Law

• Refers to God's rational plan ordering all creations.
• Everything in the universe is subject to eternal law.

Natural Law

• Natural law is accessible to human reason.
• It's an aspect of eternal law.

Human Law

• Refers to positive law.
• Should specify the natural law.
• Laws not aligned with natural law are unjust and can be disobeyed.

Divine Law

• Divine law complements other laws.
• It's revealed through scripture and directs man toward his eternal end.
• Divine Law focuses on internal holiness for salvation.

Natural Law and Ethics

• Aquinas believed that natural law is knowable through reason.
• Through synderesis, people have inclinations toward goods.
• Aquinas cited the three inclinations of survival, reproduction/education, knowing God and living peacefully.
• The closer the actions are to the end goal, the more moral it is.

Virtues

• Aquinas agreed with Aristotle on the importance of situational particulars in determining action.
• Virtue is defined by Aquinas as a good habit bearing on activity.
• Habits are firm dispositions that influence actions.

Acquired Habits

• A person's will plays a major role in acquiring habits.
• Habits come with consistent deliberate effort despite obstructions.

Infused Habits

• Habits that instilled by God.
• They are independent of the process.

Two Kinds of Infused Virtues

Moral Virtues

• Objectives include activities less virtuous themselves.
• Four virtues: prudence, fortitude, temperance, and justice

Theological Virtues

• Theological virtues focus on God.
• They offer true knowledge and desire of God.
• Faith, hope, and love help attune to our final end, which is God.