Natural Law, Cultural Relativism & Ethics

• Cultural relativism posits that morality consists of varying cultural codes, without any universal objective truth.

Socrates and Morality

• Socrates defined morality as a significant matter, concerning how one ought to live.
• Morality involves using reason to determine the best course of action, considering the interests of everyone affected.

Burton Leiser's Arguments Against Homosexuality's Unnaturalness

• Leiser critiques the claim that homosexuality is unnatural and therefore immoral, in his essay "Is Homosexuality Unnatural?"
• He systematically analyzes different meanings of "unnatural" to show they don't condemn homosexuality.

The Laws of Nature Argument

• Some argue homosexuality violates natural laws, however, Leiser clarifies that natural laws are descriptive, not prescriptive.
• Natural laws describe what happens in the physical world, not what should happen.
• Since homosexuality occurs naturally, it cannot violate natural laws.

The Artificiality Argument

• "Unnatural" can refer to artificial or man-made things, but Leiser argues artificiality is not inherently bad.
• Beneficial inventions like medicine and technology are artificial but improve lives.
• Even if homosexuality were artificial (which it is not claimed to be), it wouldn't necessarily be immoral.

The Statistical Rarity Argument

• Homosexuality is sometimes considered unnatural because it's uncommon, however, Leiser counters that rarity doesn't equate to immorality.
• Rare behaviors like being a great artist are praised, not condemned.

The "Proper Function" Argument

• An argument against homosexuality is that sexual organs are for procreation and any other use is unnatural.
• Many body parts have multiple functions, with the mouth used for eating, speaking, and kissing.
• Heterosexual relationships often don't involve reproduction, such as sex between infertile couples, pregnant women, or during menopause.
• If pleasure and emotional bonding are accepted functions of sex, homosexuality cannot be condemned.

The Natural = Good, Unnatural = Bad Argument

• Some believe what is natural is good and what is unnatural is bad.
• Nature can be harmful with diseases and natural disasters
• Unnatural things like medicine can improve human well-being.
• Labeling homosexuality as unnatural doesn't logically mean it is immoral.

Leiser's Conclusion

• Leiser concludes homosexuality cannot be condemned as unnatural.
• Arguments against it misunderstand nature, function, and morality, however, opposition may stem from prejudice and tradition.

Discrimination

• Discrimination is a concerning matter, treating people worse than others for no valid reason.

Alfred Kinsey

• Refer to PowerPoints for the Leiser article for more information on Alfred Kinsey.

Slippery Slope Argument

• The text mentions the concept of a slippery slope argument depicted by an arrow.

Reason and Impartiality

• Reason and impartiality are components of Rachels' "Minimum Conception of Mortality."

Moral Judgements

• Moral judgments must be backed by sound reasons, including relevant facts and sound moral principles.

Morality Requirements

• Morality requires impartial consideration of each individual's interest.

Rachels Overarching Point

• Morality involves guiding one's conduct by reason.

Theologians and Natural Law Argument

• The Theory of Natural Law views the world as having a rational order with built-in values and purposes.
• The Greeks believed everything in nature has a purpose.
• Aristotle's four questions: What is it? What is it made of? How did it come to be? What is it for?
• The "laws of nature" describe not only how things are, but also how things should be.
• The world is harmonious when things serve their natural purposes, and problems arise when they don't.
• Moral rules derive from the laws of nature, deeming some behaviors "natural" and others "unnatural."

Moral Knowledge

• On the Divine Command Theory, we consult God's commandments to ascertain what is right and wrong.
• The Theory of Natural Law states that moral laws are laws of reason, with the ability to reason given by God.

King Darius

• King Darius of Persia was intrigued by cultural variety, such as the Callatians eating their dead versus the Greek cremation practices.
• Darius tried to teach that enlightenment should appreciate differences.

Illustrative Story

• Darius asked Greeks if they would eat their dead fathers, and they were shocked.
• He then asked Callatians if they would burn their dead fathers, and they were horrified.

Recurring Social Science Theme

• Different cultures have different moral codes.

Varied Cultural Practices

• Eskimos had multiple wives, shared them with guests, and had volatile marriages.
• Infanticide was common, especially for female babies, and elderly members were left to die.

Western Perspective

• Most find the Eskimo customs unacceptable.
• Enlightened observers since Herodotus have recognized differing conceptions of right and wrong across cultures.

Assumed Shared Values

• Naivety comes from assuming shared values among all people.

David Hume

• David Hume has been attributed with the idea of subjectivism.

Hume's Basic Question

• addresses how to discern what is right and wrong, good and bad.

Hume's Possible Answers

• Considers whether our reason or our feelings/sentiments inform us.

Hume on Morality and Reason

• Acting morally isn't acting according to reason, and reason alone can't distinguish between moral good and evil.
• Morals excite passions or prevent actions, but reason is incapable of causing actions, therefore morality isn't derived from reason.

Is/Ought distinction

• Hume claims you cannot get what ought to be and what is good directly from what is
• "is" and "ought" statements are different kinds of statements.
• This can be solved with an additional phrase of logic

Example

• Murder harms other people, so you ought not to murder.
• The additional premise is that, "You ought not to harm other people."

Hume Concludes

• Morality is determined by sentiment.
• Virtue is whatever mental action or quality gives to a spectator the pleasing sentiment of approbation, and vice is the contrary.
• Cultural Differences Argument

Structure of Cultural Relativist Arguments

• Cultural relativists present cultural facts, followed by a moral conclusion.
• For example: (1) Greeks didn't eat the dead, Callatians did. (2) Therefore, eating the dead is neither objectively right nor wrong.

The General Argument

• Different cultures have different moral codes.
• Therefore can be concluded that there is no objective truth in morality because right and wrong is only of opinion

Rachels's Minimum Conception of Morality

• Asks if there are universal moral rules necessary for society to exist.
• Answers "yes."

Societal Needs

• Society must care for its young and value truth-telling.
• Society must prohibit murder, have the facts, and be impartial.

Simple Subjectivism

• ethical statement reports one's feelings on a topic
• ethical statements expresses ones state of mind

Problems with Simple Subjectivism

• no one is infallible about moral feelings
• it cannot account for disagreement
• the other perspective must be considered

Emotivism

• focuses on the command usages of language
• expresses an attitude rather than states it

Sullivan on same sex marriage

• Prohibitonists: They immorally object to homosexuality
• Liberationists: They see societal constructs as oppressive
• Conervatives: they consider the existence of homosexuality a private matter
• Liberals: those that advocate equality with anti discrimination laws