Nationalist Movements and Resistance in the Americas

Nationalist Movements in the Balkans

• Ottoman Empire's European territories in the Balkans faced fragmentation by the 19th century.
• Ethnic nationalism spurred independence movements, notably in Serbia (1815) and Greece (1832).
• The Treaty of Berlin (1878) granted independence to Bulgaria, Romania, and Montenegro but also placed Bosnia and Herzegovina under Austria-Hungary.

Resistance and Rebellion in the Americas

• North America: The Proclamation of 1763, aimed at protecting Native American land, was challenged by U.S. expansion following independence. The Cherokee Nation's assimilation efforts were undermined by the Indian Removal Act (1830) and the Trail of Tears.
• Ghost Dance Movement: A spiritual movement aiming to restore Native American lands and traditions faced the Wounded Knee Massacre (1890) after intensifying.
• Túpac Amaru II: Led a rebellion against Spanish rule in Peru (1780), inspired by Inca heritage and Enlightenment ideals, but was executed.

French Intervention in Mexico

• Mexico's debt and political instability post-Reform War (1857-1861) attracted French intervention.
• Napoleon III installed Archduke Maximilian as Emperor of Mexico (1864) to promote French influence.
• Mexican resistance, combined with U.S. pressure, forced French withdrawal. Maximilian was executed (1867), restoring the Mexican republic under Juárez.

South Asian Movements

• Indian Rebellion of 1857 (Sepoy Mutiny): British use of greased cartridges (animal fat) ignited a rebellion that challenged British authority, marking the start of Indian nationalism.
• Indian National Congress (1885): British-educated Indians formed this organization to pursue self-rule, initially dominated by Hindus.

Southeast Asian Resistance

• Vietnam: French colonialism encountered resistance from leaders like Ham Nghi and Phan Dinh Phung (1884-1895).
• Philippines: José Rizal and the Liga Filipina challenged Spanish rule. The Philippine Revolution (1896) and Spanish-American War (1898) resulted in U.S. control. This resulted in the Philippine-American War (1899-1902), ending with U.S. victory and continued resistance until 1906.

Resistance in Australia and New Zealand

• Australia: British colonization (1788) saw significant Indigenous displacement and loss of life due to failure to recognize Aboriginal people as British subjects.
• New Zealand: The Treaty of Waitangi (1840) promised Maori land rights but was ultimately breached as British settlement led to conflicts, resulting in Maori land loss by 1900.

African Resistance

• Sokoto Caliphate: Established by Usman dan Fodio (1804), resisted British colonization until 1903.
• Xhosa Cattle-Killing Movement (1856-1857): A spiritual movement amongst the Xhosa resulted in the slaughter of their cattle in an attempt to drive out British settlers, leading to famine.
• Zulu Kingdom: Resisted British colonization in the Anglo-Zulu War (1879) but was defeated.
• Samory Touré: Fought French expansion in West Africa (1868-1898) and was captured.
• Mahdist Revolt: Led by Muhammad Ahmad in Sudan (1881-1898), it resisted Egypt and British rule.
• Yaa Asantewaa War (1900): The Asante queen led a rebellion to protect the Golden Stool against British demands, but was ultimately defeated.

Key Themes and Outcomes

• Anti-Imperial Resistance: Indigenous people engaged in various forms of resistance to imperial rule (rebellion, spiritual movements).
• New States: Some resistance efforts led to the establishment of new states or self-governance measures.
• Impact of Imperialism: Resistance often failed against superior European military technology, but it promoted nationalism and laid the groundwork for future independence movements.