Nationalism in Europe

• Section I showcases Events and Processes.

The Rise of Nationalism in Europe

• The rise of nationalism in Europe is explored.
• In 1848, Frédéric Sorrieu, a French artist, created a series of prints envisioning a world of "democratic and social Republics."
• The first print depicts people from Europe and America marching and paying homage to the Statue of Liberty.
• Liberty is personified as a female figure holding the torch of Enlightenment and the Charter of the Rights of Man, reminiscent of the French Revolution.
• Shattered remains of absolutist institutions are in the foreground.
• Sorrieu's vision groups people into distinct nations with flags and national costumes; the US and Switzerland lead the procession, already nation-states.
• Germany, identifiable by its black, red, and gold flag, follows France; this flag symbolizes liberal hopes to unify German-speaking principalities under a democratic constitution.
• Austria, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, Lombardy, Poland, England, Ireland, Hungary, and Russia follow.
• Christ, saints, and angels symbolize fraternity.
• The 19th century saw nationalism emerge as a force causing political and mental shifts, leading to nation-states replacing multinational dynasties.
• A modern state is defined as a centralized power exercising sovereign control over a defined territory.
• A nation-state is where most citizens, not just rulers, develop a shared identity, common history, or descent, forged through struggles and leadership.
• Absolutist governments have no restraints on power, are centralized, militarized, and repressive.
• Utopian refers to an ideal society unlikely to exist.
• Plebiscite means a direct vote for people to accept or reject a proposal in a region.
• Ernst Renan argues a nation isn't formed by language, race, religion, or territory, but by shared endeavors, sacrifices, and devotion.
• Renan argued that a nation needs a heroic past, great men, and collective glory as its social capital.
• Essential conditions for a people are shared glories, a common will, great deeds performed together, and a desire to do more.
• Renan defined a nation as a large-scale solidarity, with its existence being a daily plebiscite.
• A nation should not forcibly annex a country against its will.
• Nations guarantee liberty, which would be lost if there was only one world law and master.

The French Revolution and the Idea of the Nation

• The first clear expression of nationalism was the French Revolution in 1789.
• France was a territorial state under an absolute monarch.
• Sovereignty transferred from the monarchy to French citizens due to political and constitutional changes following the revolution.
• The revolution declared the people would constitute the nation and shape its destiny.
• The French revolutionaries introduced measures to create collective identity among the French.
• La patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) emphasized a united community with equal rights under a constitution.
• The tricolor flag replaced the royal standard.
• The Estates General was renamed the National Assembly.
• New hymns were composed, oaths taken, and martyrs commemorated in the nation's name.
• A centralized administrative system and uniform laws were established.
• Internal customs duties were abolished and weights and measures were standardized.
• Regional dialects were discouraged, and French, as spoken and written in Paris, became the common language.
• Revolutionaries declared the mission of the French nation was to liberate peoples of Europe from despotism.
• Students and educated middle classes began setting up Jacobin clubs upon hearing news of France.
• Their activities prepared the way for French armies which moved into Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, and Italy in the 1790s.
• French armies began to spread the idea of nationalism abroad with revolutionary wars.
• Napoleon introduced reforms in territories under his control; he destroyed democracy but incorporated revolutionary principles in administration.
• The Civil Code of 1804, or Napoleonic Code, abolished privileges based on birth, established equality before the law, and secured the right to property.
• The Code was exported to regions under French Control.
• Napoleon simplified administrative divisions, abolished the feudal system, and freed peasants from serfdom and manorial dues in the Dutch Republic, Switzerland, Italy, and Germany.
• Guild restrictions were removed in towns and transport and communication systems were improved.
• Businessmen and small-scale producers found new freedom in uniform laws and standardized weights and measures.
• A common national currency facilitated goods and capital movement, but reactions to France saw mixed opinions.
• Places like Holland, Switzerland, Brussels, Mainz, Milan, and Warsaw welcomed French armies as harbingers of liberty.
• Initial enthusiasm turned to hostility due to a lack of political freedom, increased taxation, censorship, and forced conscription.

The Making of Nationalism in Europe

• Mid-18th century Europe lacked 'nation-states.'
• Germany, Italy, and Switzerland comprised kingdoms, duchies, and cantons with autonomous rulers.
• Eastern and Central Europe featured autocratic monarchies ruling over diverse peoples lacking shared identity or culture and often speaking different languages.
• The Habsburg Empire, ruling Austria-Hungary, included regions like Tyrol, Austria, Sudetenland, Lombardy, and Venetia.
• In Hungary, half spoke Magyar, and half spoke dialects; the aristocracy in Galicia spoke Polish.
• The empire also contained Bohemians, Slovaks, Slovenes, Croats, and Roumans.
• Allegiance to the emperor was the only thing uniting these diverse groups.
• A landed aristocracy was the dominant class, united by a lifestyle transcending regional divisions.
• Aristocrats owned country estates and town-houses and spoke French for diplomacy.
• They were connected by marriage.
• The aristocracy was numerically small and the population was mainly peasantry.
• Western lands were farmed by tenants and small owners, and Eastern and Central Europe were characterized by vast estates cultivated by serfs.
• Industrial production and trade grew in Western and parts of Central Europe, leading to the growth of towns and commercial classes.
• Industrialization began in England in the second half of the 18th century, later occurring in France and German states.
• New social groups emerged, including a working class and middle classes comprising industrialists, businessmen, and professionals.
• Central and Eastern Europe had smaller groups until the late 19th century.
• Educated, liberal middle classes supported national unity by abolishing aristocratic privileges.
• Liberalism comes from Latin liber, meaning free. Liberalism stood for individual freedom and equality before the law.
• Politically, it emphasized government by consent.
• It stood for the end of autocracy and clerical privileges, a constitution, and representative government through parliament.
• Nineteenth-century liberals stressed private property's inviolability.
• Equality before the law did not mean universal suffrage. Revolutionary France granted voting rights exclusively to property-owning men.
• Men without property and all women were excluded.
• Only under the Jacobins was there suffrage for all adult males.
• The Napoleonic Code limited suffrage and subjected women to the authority of fathers and husbands.
• 19th and early 20th-century women and non-propertied men organized opposition movements demanding equal political rights.
• Economically, liberalism stood for free markets and the abolition of state-imposed restrictions.
• This was a strong demand of the emerging middle classes.
• Napoleon's administrative measures created a confederation of 39 states from numerous small principalities in German-speaking regions.
• Each state possessed its own currency, and weights and measures.
• Traveling merchants faced customs barriers and duties.
• Weight or measurement determined duties which were often time-consuming due to regional variations.
• The elle, a measure of cloth like the elle, varied.
• Such conditions hindered economic exchange and growth.
• Commercial classes argued for a unified economic territory allowing unhindered movement of goods, people, and capital.
• A customs union or zollverein was formed in 1834 at Prussia's initiative.
• The union abolished tariff barriers and reduced the number of currencies.
• A network of railways stimulated mobility and harnessed economic interests to national unification.
• Economic nationalism strengthened wider nationalist sentiments.
• Suffrage is defined as the right to vote.
• Conservatism is a political philosophy stressing the importance of tradition and established institutions and preferring gradual development.
• Conservatives believed in preserving traditional institutions like monarchy, the Church, social hierarchies, property, and family.
• Most conservatives didn't propose returning to pre-revolutionary times, realizing modernization could strengthen traditional institutions.
• Modernization could make the state more effective through a modern army, bureaucracy, economy, and the abolition of feudalism and serfdom.
• In 1815, European powers' representatives met at Vienna to settle Europe after Napoleon's defeat.
• Austrian Chancellor Duke Metternich hosted the Congress.
• The Treaty of Vienna of 1815 aimed to undo changes made during the Napoleonic Wars.
• The Bourbon dynasty was restored to power in France, and France lost annexed territories.
• States were set up on France's boundaries to prevent future expansion.
• The Kingdom of the Netherlands was established and Genoa was added to Piedmont.
• Prussia was given new territories, and Austria gained control of northern Italy, but the German Confederation was untouched.
• Russia was given part of Poland, while Prussia was given a portion of Saxony.
• The goal was to restore monarchies and create a conservative order.
• Conservative regimes were autocratic, intolerant of criticism, and sought to curb activities questioning autocratic governments.
• Censorship laws controlled what was said in newspapers, books, plays, and songs, suppressing the ideas of liberty and freedom.

The Age of Revolutions: 1830-1848

• Post-1830, conservative regimes met liberalism and nationalism with revolution
• These revolutions were especially felt in Italian and German states, the Ottoman Empire provinces, Ireland, and Poland.
• Revolutions were led by educated middle-class elites such as teachers, clerks, and commercial members.
• In July 1830, the first upheaval occurred in France, as the Bourbon kings were overthrown.
• Liberal revolutionaries installed Louis Philippe as a constitutional monarch
• Metternich remarked that ‘When France sneezes, Europe catches cold'
• An uprising in Brussels was sparked by France's revolution, which saw Belgium separate from the United Kingdom of the Netherlands
• The Greek War of Independence mobilized nationalist feelings across Europe among the educated.
• Greeks began a struggle in 1821 against the Ottoman Empire for independence.
• Revolutionaries got support from Greeks in exile, and West Europeans with sympathies for ancient Greek culture supported them as well.
• Poets and artists mobilized public opinion, lauding Greece as the cradle of European civilization to garner support struggling against a Muslim empire.
• The English poet, Lord Byron, would go on to organize funds and later fight in the war, eventually dying of fever in 1824.
• In 1832, Greece was established as an independent nation through the Treaty of Constantinople
• Nationalism didn't arise through wars alone.
• Culture played one role in wars and territorial expansion.
• Concepts such as art, poetry, stories, and music became associated with nationalism.
• The cultural movement, Romanticism, sought to develop nationalist sentiment.
• Romantic artists and poets criticized science and focused on intuition, mystical feelings, and emotion.
• They strove to encourage a shared history and collective heritage as the roots of a nation.
• German philosopher Johann Gottfried Herder (1744-1803) claimed German culture dwelled among common people (das volk).
• Folk songs, poetry, through which the nation's spirit (was popularized.
• It was popularized through folk songs, poetry, dances (volksgeist).
• The movement further sought folk culture and national-building.
• Vernacular language and local folklore were essential to connect with mostly illiterate audiences.
• In Poland, nationalism was maintained via language amid partition by Russia, Prussia, and Austria at the end of the 18th century
• Composers would celebrate the national struggle, like, Karol Kurpinski Mazurka dances were used as nationalist symbols.
• Language became vital; after Russia occupied polish territoties, authorities forced Russian while removing Polish.
• In 1831 armed rebellion led to Poland's clergy now using language as a weapon
• Clergy held Polish religious gatherings and began to be arrested or sent to Siberia by Russian governments, for resistance to preaching in Russian
• Symbolically, Polish became a sign of Polish resistance to Russian rule.
• Conservatism is a political philosophy stressing the importance of tradition and established institutions and preferring gradual development.
• Europe dealt with hunger and popular revolt within the 1830s, and especially its start.
• Early 1800s European population grew enormously. Unemployment, job seekers, lack of jobs, became issues.
• Small producers were overwhelmed in towns, due to market competitions for machines, from industrialized England.
• Textile Production was based in homes mostly, or in small workshops; it was also only partly mechanized.
• Peasatns where still under feudal rule, such as regions of aristocracies which caused poverty.

1848: The Revolution of the Liberals

• Poor, unemployed, peasants, and workers, saw revolts in 1848 Europe.
• Educated middle classes contributed to revolts.
• The events of February saw the monarchy abdicate in Europe in 1848.
• A male based republic was created, through universal sufrage.
• Liberals sought constitutions and unified nationalism , while women continued to demand constructionalism, with national unification.
• Growing unrest pushed demands for nations through parlimentary principles.
• Freedom of association, and the press, and also a constitution became demanded.
• Middle class persons came togetehr for an all German National Assembly, in the city of Frankfurt.
• Elected Representatives did things such as marched to German parliment, at a festive procession.
• German states became set to have monarchs who head the consitution parliment.
• Freedom of association, and the press, and also a constitution, became demanded.
• Political rights extending would result in women becomming involved.
• Women would start feministic movements such as newspapers, but be rebuffed in general for suffrage.
• Suffrage is defined as the right to vote.
• Conservatism is a political philosophy stressing the importance of tradition and established institutions and preferring gradual development.

The Making of Germany and Italy

• Post-1848 European nationalism lost association with revolution and was used by conservatives for political domination. Germany and Italy were nation-states through nationalist feelings.
• In 1848, the German confederation wanted to create a nation-state with an elected parliament.
• Military and monarchial forces supressed liberal initiatives, and this was supported by Prussian landowners known as Junkers.
• Prussia lead the nation unification process lead by Otto von Bismarck and through Prussian military and bureaucracy.
• Wars happened over 7 years, like the one with Austria, Denmark, and France, and were one by Prussia
• Kaiser William became declared German emperor in 1871 at Versailles in January
• At Versailles princes of the assembly, state representatives, Prussian ministers with Otto von Bismarcks, declared Empire.
• Germany's process of building the nation displayed Prussian power leadership. Meaures to be used became Prussian currencies, modernizing currencies, legal systems, banking etc.
• Ideology System is ideas that illustrate asocial and political.

Italy Unified

• There was a great history that fragmentized italy for centuries.
• People were scatters,dynastic ruled, Habsurg owned , over many states.
• During the 19th century italy consisted of 7 states,
• Only one of those estates Sardinai - piedemont, were ran by Italian princes.
• Habsburgs ruled the NOrth, Popes ruled the center, and Spain ruled the south.
• During the 1830s, Giuseppe Mazzini established a Italian Republic.
• Revolution failed and power was given to Sardinia under victor Emmanuel. Italy became unties.
• Elites believe unified state would offer Political dominance political and economic development.

The Strange Case of Britain

• B ritain became an example to some as formation of Nation .
• 1700s there was no british nations, but there were ethnic groups with identities.
• English wealth and power increased and extended influence to isalnds of nations such as Ireland.
• English parliment was the way through what English influence was achieved.
• British identities were made when Scottish identities and cultures where supressed.
• The act of Union in 170, between scotland an england, formed a unified kingdom.
• Highlanders or scottish Catholics , Were exiled, when they challenged power.
• It then became the role of england to impose this new identity over Scotland, a smaller nation. Scotland suffered due to the growth of the new english, while England exerted their power.
• Ideology System is ideas that illustrate asocial and political.

Visualising the Nation

• During the 18th century, nation faces started to take form though sculptures or portraits.
• Feminization became a common way to represent a naiton, rather than stand for real form.
• The nation instead was repersendted thru abstract and symbolic format through personification.
• Liberty ( Broken chains/red cap) and Justice (balence) were also common throughout revolutionary France

Nationalism and Imperialism

• During the later nineteenth century nationalism lost revolutionary and idealist causes.
• Nationalists Became increasingly ready to go to war and were intolerant.
• They mainupated for imperialist reasons
• The most seriuos was the source of tension caused in Europe after 1871 was, the balkans.
• There was geographical and ethnic regions like Bulgaria, Alabania, Romani etc.
• Ottoman empire weakened throughout the 19th centry due to westernzation and the strengthing fo its nations, and there wasnt internal reforms.
• European nationalistis used claims regarding their independence nad the rights to the new nationality.
• History was used to prove the had been conqured rather then being independent.
• Power was exerected through rivarly adn military.
• Each poeer wanted to strenghten their holds
• Imperalism with nationalism, led Europe to dissaters and imperialism alinged.
• Euroepan imperialiosm wasnt replicated, and they began to see nationalism through their own ideas and lens.
• New state came to be accepted as universal