Rise of Nationalism in Europe

• The section discusses the events and processes in Europe that led to a rise in nationalism

Frédéric Sorrieu's Vision (1848)

• French artist Frédéric Sorrieu created a series of prints envisioning a world of "democratic and social Republics.”
• The first print depicts people of Europe and America of all ages and social classes marching in a long train, offering homage to the Statue of Liberty
• Liberty is personified as a female figure bearing the torch of Enlightenment and the Charter of the Rights of Man
• Shattered remains of absolutist institutions lie on the earth

Sorrieu's Utopian Vision

• The peoples are grouped as distinct nations with flags and national costumes
• The United States and Switzerland lead the procession, already nation-states at the time
• France, identified by its revolutionary tricolor, follows closely
• Germany, Austria, the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, Lombardy, Poland, England, Ireland, Hungary, and Russia are also part of the imagined procession
• Christ, saints, and angels symbolize fraternity above

Nationalism's Emergence

• Nationalism emerged during the 19th century, causing political and mental upheaval in Europe
• The outcome was the rise of the nation-state, replacing multinational dynastic empires
• A modern state has a centralized power exercising control over a defined territory
• The nation-state is characterized by a majority of citizens developing a sense of common identity, history, and descent, forged through struggles and actions

Ernst Renan on Nations

• French philosopher Ernst Renan (1823-92), defined a nation
• In an 1882 lecture, Renan criticized the idea that a nation is formed by a common language, race, religion, or territory
• According to Renan, a nation is the culmination of shared endeavors, sacrifices, and devotion.
• A nation requires a heroic past, great leaders, and glory, forming the social capital for a national idea
• Essential conditions include common glories in the past, a common will in the present, and the desire to perform great deeds together
• A nation's existence is a daily plebiscite, with the inhabitants having the right to be consulted
• Annexing a country against its will goes against the concept of a nation
• Nations guarantee liberty, which would be lost under a single global law

French Revolution and Nationalism (1789)

• The French Revolution of 1789 was the first clear expression of nationalism
• Sovereignty was transferred from the monarchy to French citizens
• The revolution established that the people would constitute the nation and shape its destiny

French Revolutionaries' Measures

• The measures created a sense of collective identity among the French
• The ideas of la patrie (the fatherland) and le citoyen (the citizen) emphasized a united community with equal rights under a constitution
• A new French flag, the tricolor, replaced the former royal standard
• The Estates General was elected by active citizens and renamed the National Assembly
• New hymns were composed, oaths taken, and martyrs commemorated
• A centralized administrative system was put in place, and uniform laws were formulated for all citizens
• Internal customs duties and dues were abolished, and a uniform system of weights and measures was adopted
• Regional dialects were discouraged, and French in Paris became the common language

Revolutionary Declarations

• The French nation had a mission to liberate the peoples of Europe from despotism
• Students and educated middle classes in Europe began setting up Jacobin clubs
• Their activities prepared the way for the French armies, which moved into Holland, Belgium, Switzerland, and Italy in the 1790s

Impact of French Armies

• The French armies carried the idea of nationalism abroad

German Almanac (1798)

• Journalist Andreas Rebmann designed a German almanac cover
• The image of the French Bastille being stormed was placed next to a fortress in Kassel, Germany
• The slogan "The people must seize their own freedom!" accompanied the illustration
• Rebmann, lived in Mainz and belonged to a German Jacobin group

Napoleonic Reforms

• Napoleon introduced reforms in territories under his control
• Although Napoleon ended democracy in France through a return to monarchy, he incorporated revolutionary principles for administrative efficiency
• The Civil Code of 1804 (Napoleonic Code) abolished privileges based on birth, established equality before the law, and secured the right to property
• It was exported to regions under French control
• Napoleon simplified administrative divisions, abolished feudal systems, and freed peasants from serfdom in the Dutch Republic, Switzerland, Italy, and Germany
• Guild restrictions were removed, and transport and communication systems were improved

Reactions to French Rule

• Businessmen realized that uniform laws, standardized weights and measures, and a common currency would facilitate the movement and exchange of goods and capital
• Local populations had mixed reactions to French rule
• Initially welcomed as harbingers of liberty in places like Holland, Switzerland, Brussels, Mainz, Milan, and Warsaw
• Enthusiasm turned to hostility due to increased taxation, censorship, and forced conscription, outweighing the advantages of administrative changes
• Karl Kaspar Fritz painted the occupation of Zweibrücken by French armies, French soldiers are portrayed as oppressors in the painting called "The Planting of the Tree of Liberty"

The Courier of Rhineland

• Napoleon is represented as a postman losing territories after the Battle of Leipzig in 1813

Absence of Nation-States

• Mid-18th-century Europe lacked nation-states as we know them today

Division of Territories

• Germany, Italy, and Switzerland were divided into kingdoms, duchies, and cantons with autonomous rulers

Autocratic Monarchies

• Eastern and Central Europe were under autocratic monarchies with diverse peoples

Lack of Collective Identity

• Peoples did not share a common culture and spoke different languages

Habsburg Empire

• Ruled over Austria-Hungary, was a patchwork of regions and peoples, including Alpine regions, Bohemia, Lombardy, Venetia, Hungary, and Galicia

Ethnic Diversity

• Bohemians, Slovaks, Slovenes, Croats, and Roumans also lived within the empire, hindering political unity

Emperor's Allegiance

• The common allegiance to the emperor was the only bond

Landed Aristocracy

• Socially and politically dominant, united by a common lifestyle, owned estates, spoke French, and were connected by marriage, but were numerically small

Majority Population

• Most were peasants, tenants, and small owners in the west, while vast estates cultivated by serfs characterized Eastern and Central Europe

Growth of Towns

• Industrial production and trade led to growth of towns and commercial classes in Western and parts of Central Europe

Industrialization

• Began in England in the second half of the 18th century, and in France and German states in the 19th century

New Social Groups

• included a working-class population, industrialists, businessmen, and professionals

Liberal Middle Classes

• Ideas of national unity following the abolition of aristocratic privileges gained popularity, smaller numbers in Central and Eastern Europe till late 19th century

Liberalism

• Derived from the Latin root liber, meaning free

Middle-Class Liberalism

• stood for freedom for the individual and equality before the law

Political Emphasis

• Emphasized government by consent, the end of autocracy, clerical privileges, a constitution, and representative government

Economic Liberalism

• Stood for freedom of markets and the abolition of state-imposed restrictions

German-Speaking Regions

• Napoleon's administrative measures created a confederation of 39 states, each with own currency, weights, and measures

Obstacles to Trade

• Custom duties and time-consuming calculations impeded economic exchange and growth

The Elle

• A measure of cloth, varied in length across regions

Economic Territory

• Commercial classes advocated for a unified economic territory to allow the unhindered movement of goods, people, and capital

Customs Union (Zollverein)

• Formed in 1834 at Prussia's initiative, abolishing tariff barriers and reducing currencies

Customs Union Effects

• Railways stimulated mobility and economic interests to national unification

Economic Nationalism

• Strengthened wider nationalist sentiments

Conservatism (1815)

• Conservatives believed in preserving established traditional institutions

Conservatism Principles

• Emphasized the monarchy, the Church, social hierarchies, property, and family

Post Revolutionary Society

• Conservatives realized that modernization could strengthen traditional institutions like the monarchy

Effectiveness

• Modern army, efficient bureaucracy, and abolition of feudalism could strengthen autocratic monarchies

Vienna Congress (1815)

• Representatives of European powers sought to undo changes brought by Napoleon

Vienna Treaty

• Bourbon dynasty restored to power France lost territories
• Series of states set up on boundaries of France to prevent expansion
• Kingdom of the Netherlands was set up
• Genoa was added to Piedmont
• Prussia received territories, while Austria gained northern Italy
• German confederation of 39 states was untouched

Conservative Regimes

• Set up after 1815 were autocratic, suppressed criticism, and imposed censorship laws

Caricature

• The Caricature refers to Clubs of Thinkers
• It showed the rules of silence, and suggested potential muzzles

Revolutionaries

• After 1815, repression led to underground movements by liberal nationalists

Secret Societies

• Sprang up in many European states to train revolutionaries and spread ideas

Revolutionary Commitment

• Opposition to monarchical forms and the fight for liberty

Giuseppe Mazzini

• An Italian revolutionary born in Genoa (1805)

Membership

• Was a member of the secret society of the Carbonari

Exile

• Was sent into exile in 1831 for attempting a revolution in Liguria

Underground Societies

• He founded "Young Italy" and "Young Europe"

Mazzini`s Beliefs

• Believed that God intended nations to be the natural units of mankind, so Italy should be a unified republic
• secret societies set up after his model

Fears

• Monarchs feared the relentless opposition to monarchy

Metternich

• Metternich described him as ‘the most dangerous enemy of our social order’

Revolutions (1830-1848)

• Liberalism and nationalism increasingly associated with revolution

Regions Involved

• The European areas such as Italian and German states, Ottoman Empire, Ireland and Poland

Social Classes

• Revolutions led by educated middle-class elites

July Revolution (1830)

• Sparked uprising in Brussels, leading to Belgium's separation

Greek War

• Mobilized nationalist feelings, the Greek war of independence

Romanticism

• Cultural movement emphasizing emotions and cultural heritage

Emphasis

• Vernacular language and local folklore used to carry nationalist messages

Poland's Case

• Poland's national feelings kept alive through music and language

Use Of Polish

• Poland's was used as a weapon of resistance during religious gatherings

Economic Hardship

• The 1830s marked great economic hardship

Population Increase

• Europe experiences increased Population but with less jobs

Industrialization Impact

• Machine-made goods posed stiff competition

Peasant Struggles

• Peasants struggled under feudal obligations

Food Crisis

• Led to pauperism.

Revolution (1848)

• Food shortage and Paris unemployment erupt and Louis Philippe flees

Revolts

• Silesian riots followed reduced payments

National Assembly

• Assembly proclaimed to republic with universal suffrage

German Region

• Political associations met to form all-German Assemblies

Frankfurt Parliament

• Frankfurt's convened with representatives to draft constitution

Kings of Prussia

• He rejected it and joined other monarchs

Parliament's Erosion

• Parliament eroded the aristocracy influence

Women's Rights

• Political inclusion by women's own associations, but were excluded from the primary groups