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Anatomical Terms

• Anatomy is the study of the structure and form of an organism, including composition, arrangement, and size.
• Gross or macroscopic anatomy observes body parts with the naked eye, often on a corpse.
• Histology or microscopic anatomy studies minute structures like cells and tissues, using microscopes for magnification.
• Embryology or developmental anatomy is the study of structural changes from fertilization to birth.
• Surface or regional anatomy studies the correspondence between body surface and internal structures and is pertinent to radiographers.
• Comparative anatomy studies structural similarities and differences among species.
• Physiology is the study of organ functions, limited to normal functions of normal structures.
• Pathology is the study of disease and its effects on the body.

Nomina Anatomica

• The names of anatomical structures are based on the Nomina Anatomica, compiled by the International Anatomical Nomenclature Committee.
• The goal is a list of internationally acceptable anatomical names, replacing various names and eponyms like Stensen's duct with descriptive terms such as Parotid duct.
• Names are in Latin for universal acceptance, and include Histology and Embryology sections since the fourth edition.
• Older improper spellings containing diphthongs have been eliminated, e.g. cecum replaces caecum.
• Hyphens between vowels in words and in compound words have been dropped, e.g. infraorbital, posteroanterior.
• Alternate names are retained in some cases, e.g. calcaneus and os calcis, while in others, meanings have been restricted, such as extremity referring to the end of a long structure rather than a limb.

Origin and Terminology of Anatomical Names

• Anatomical names originate from Greek (G), Latin (L), and Anglosaxon (AS), with some structures having derivatives from both Greek and Latin, e.g., renal (L) and nephritic (G) for the kidney.
• Ancient anatomists recognized similarities between anatomical structures and everyday objects, naming them accordingly, e.g., clavicle resembling an old-fashioned key.
• Older medical personnel use older names, hence these are listed with the NA names.
• If two or more names are commonly used for a structure, the NA and older names are listed, and frequently used eponyms are included.
• Modern anatomical texts increasingly use English terms derived from Anglosaxon interpretations, retaining Latin names in some cases, e.g. femur, and translating others, e.g. clavicle.
• Anglicized derivatives, especially adjectives, are accepted, e.g., hepatic from hepar (liver).
• English plurals formed by adding "s" or "es," along with irregular forms, are used along with Latin plurals.
• Adjectives are frequently Anglicized forms of Latin names, e.g. ulnar, radial, axillary.

General Anatomical Terms

• The anatomical position requires the subject to stand upright with the face to the front, palms forward, arms and legs extended, and feet together. In supine position, the subject lies on the back with the face and palms upwards.
• The median line divides the body into right and left halves.
• Head, or caput, refers to the expanded end of a body part; Little Head, or capitulum, is a small head, e.g., capitulum of humerus.
• Neck, or cervix/collum, is the constricted part adjacent to the head, e.g., neck of radius.
• Body or corpus is the principal part of a structure, e.g., body of the pancreas.
• Shaft, or sceaft (AS), is the principal part of a long bone, e.g., shaft of the radius.
• Tail or cauda is the tapered end of a structure.
• Lobe or lobus is a subdivision of an organ.
• Lobule or lobulus is a small lobe.
• Segment or segmentum is a unit of structure with its own blood supply.
• Extremity or extremitas refers to the end of a structure though not a limb.
• Apex is the pointed end of a structure.
• Base is the broad, flattened end of a structure.
• Aperture, foramen, hiatus, orifice, os/ostium, and porus refer to various types of openings.
• Fissure is a narrow slit or groove.
• Fossa is a depression or hollow.
• Hilus or hilum is an indentation where vessels enter or leave an organ.
• Sulcus is a groove or furrow running along a bone or artery.
• Sinus can mean a cavity, a channel for blood, or an outlet for pus.
• Meatus is a canal or tubelike passage.
• Ramus is a branch or division of a vessel, nerve, or bone.
• The terms defined are used in connection with many organs, not just bones
• Medial or mesial refers to something nearest the median line, while lateral is farthest from it.
• Middle is different than medial, and refers to a structure lying between two others.
• Anterior is towards the front, while posterior is towards the back.
• Ventral refers to the front or anterior part; Dorsal refers to the back or posterior part.

Prefixes

• ab- away from; abduction
• ad- towards; adduction
• ambi- both sides; ambidextrous
• amphi- both, doubly; amphidiploid
• ana- up, back, apart; anaphase
• ante- before; antepartum
• anti- against, opposing; antiseptic
• auto- self, own; autonomic
• bi, bis- twice, double; bicuspic
• circum- around, about; circumduct
• contra- against, opposite; contraindicative
• di, dis- apart, away from, separation; diaphysis
• dys- difficult, bad; dysfunction
• e, ex- out, away from; exhale
• ecto- outside; ectoderm
• en, endo, ento- inside, within; endocrine
• epi- upon, over, above; epicondyle
• exra- outside, beyond; extrauterine
• hemi- half; hemisphere
• homo- same; homogeneous
• hydro- water or fluid; hydrolysis
• hyper- above, excessive; hypertension
• hypo- below, deficient; hypodermic
• in(or)- into, inwards; inhale
• infra- below; infraorbital
• inter- between; intercarpal
• intra- within; intravenous
• macro- large, long; macromolecule
• meta- beyond, after; metacarpal
• micro- small; microscope
• ortho- straight; orthopedics
• pan- all; panAmerican
• para- beside; parathyroid
• peri- around; peridental
• poly- much, many; polygon
• post- after; postpartum
• pre- before; prepatellar
• pro- before, forward; process
• pseudo- false; pseudonym
• re- again back, remove; reduce
• retro- behind, backward; retrograde
• sub- under; subarachnoid
• super- above, excess; superficial
• supra- above; supraorbital
• sym- together, with; symphosis
• syn- together; syndrome
• telo- end; telophase
• ultra- beyond, after; ultraviolet
• uni- one, single; unilateral

Suffixes

• algia: pain; cephalalgia, neuralgia
• cele: swelling, hernia; meningocele
• centesis: puncture: thoracocentesis
• ectomy: to cut out, excise, remove; appendectomy
• otomy: an incision, a cut into; gastrotomy
• ostomy: to make an opening; gastrostomy
• graph: writing, picture bronchograph
• graphy: the procedure of making a picture; bronchography
• iasis : condition, formation of; cholelithiasis
• osis : condition, presence of, a disease; diverticulosis
• less: without; hairless, ductless
• lith: stone; phlebolith
• oma: tumor; lipoma, osteoma
• pathy: disease; adenopathy
• ptosis: falling down; nephroptosis
• oid or oides: like; conoid, pisiform logia or logy: science of, study of; biology

Anatomical Terms

• Refers to terminology from chapter one

Divisions of the Body

• Divisions of the body include the head, neck, trunk, and limbs
• Trunk consists of the thorax or chest, abdomen, and pelvis
• Limbs are the superior or upper limb and the inferior or lower limb

Body cavities

• Main body cavities ventral and dorsal
• Ventral cavity is divided into thoracic, abdominal, and pelvic cavities
• Thoracic cavity enclosed by chest wall, mediastinum divides into right and left pleural cavities
• Abdominal cavity below diaphragm to pelvic bones
• Pelvic cavity within bony pelvis, continuous with abdominal cavity
• The term abdominopelvic cavity may be suitable
• Dorsal cavity within skull and vertebral column
  • Cranial cavity contains the brain
  • Spinal canal contains the spinal cord

Regional surface areas

• Areas of the body have established names:
  • Axilla (armpit)
  • Groin (area of oblique crease where the lower limb joins the trunk)
  • Loin (lateral side of the abdomen)
  • Lumbar region (posterior abdominal wall)
  • Buttock (prominent area of the rump on either side behind the hip)
  • Perineum (space between the thighs, from anus to pubic arch, contains anus and the openings from the reproductive and urinary tracts)

Organization of body structures

• The organization of body structures consists of:
  • cells
  • tissues
  • organs
  • systems
• Cells are the unit of structure and function
• Tissues include:
  • Epithelial tissue or epithelium
  • Connective tissue
  • Muscular tissue
  • Nerve tissue
• Organs are groups of tissues for a specific function
• Systems are groups of tissues and organs to perform a function
• Examples of systems:
  • Cardiovascular
  • Skeletal
  • Muscular, digestive

Composition of cells

• Protoplasm is the name used to indicate living matter.
• Body cells are composed of protoplasm.
• Protoplasm is composed of compound molecules of atoms such as oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, and nitrogen with lesser amounts of sulfur, phosphorus, calcium, chlorine, iodine, magnesium, sodium, and potassium.
• The compound molecules include proteins, nucleic acid, carbohydrates, and lipids.
• This structure enables protoplasmic molecules qualify as living matter.

DNA and RNA

• DNA (deoxyribose nucleic acid) consists of complex molecules in the chromosomes of cell nuclei.
• Each contains thousands of compounds with a nitrogen base, a sugar with 5 carbon atoms, deoxyribose, and a phosphate.
• These various combinations transmit hereditary traits.
• RNA (ribose nucleic acid) contains nitrogen, ribose, a sugar with 5 carbon atoms, and a phosphate.
• This contrasts DNA's deoxyribose.
• The number arrangement of the units may vary.

Instruments used in microscopy

• Light microscopes use light, and magnify objects up to 2000x their actual size.
• Electron microscopes use electrons allowing magnification of objects thousands of times their actual size.

Structure of cells

• Cells consist of three parts: cell membrane, nucleus, and cytoplasm.
• The cell (plasma) membrane, surrounds each cell.
  • Forms a wall to contain the cell contents but is permeable, allowing water and many molecules to pass in out of the cell
  • May contain pores (openings)
• The centrally placed nucleus, separated by a nuclear membrane, controls cellular activity and contains chromosomes and a nucleolus.

Nucleus

• Chromosomes are long, threadlike filaments within the nucleus, containing proteins and DNA molecules that carry genes.
• The nucleolus is a rounded body within the nucleus that may manufacture RNA.
• The cytoplasm is material between the nucleus and the cell membrane, containing units also named organelles mitochondria, endoplasmic reticula, Golgi bodies, lysosomes, and centrosomes which function for the cell.

Tissues

• Tissue is a group of cells that are similar in structure and function, and which are organized to form a unit.
• Tissues also consist of:
  • 1. Epithelial tissue or epithelium
  • 2. Connective tissue (see below)**
  • 3. Muscular tissue
  • 4. Nervous tissue