Mutation Classification and Types

A purine base (A or G) is replaced with another purine or a pyrimidine base (C or T) is replaced with another pyrimidine.

A purine base (A or G) is replaced with a pyrimidine base (C or T) or vice versa.

A change in the nucleotide sequence of a gene.

A single base change within a gene.

One nucleotide is replaced with another, altering the DNA sequence.

A base substitution that alters the encoded amino acid, potentially affecting protein function.

A base substitution that changes a codon to a stop codon, prematurely terminating protein synthesis.

A base substitution that changes a codon but still encodes the same amino acid.

Any change in the amount or arrangement of genes, nucleotide sequence, or chromosomes in a cell.

Mutations that occur randomly without any known external cause.

Mutations caused by external factors called mutagens, like chemicals or radiation.

Substances or agents that increase the rate of mutation in organisms.

Physical mutagens include radiation like UV and X-rays.

Chemical mutagens are substances that can cause DNA mutations, like mustard gas or nitrous acid.

A change within a gene where one nucleotide base is substituted for another.

A genetic condition in females where they have only one X chromosome, resulting in the genotype 45, XO.

A chromosomal condition in males with an extra X chromosome, making their genotype 47, XXY.

A genetic condition in males with an extra Y chromosome, resulting in the genotype 47, XYY.

A genetic condition in females with an extra X chromosome, resulting in the genotype 47, XXX.

The failure of chromosomes to separate properly during cell division, leading to an abnormal number of chromosomes in the resulting cells.

A condition where an individual has an abnormal number of chromosomes.

The lack of menstruation in females.

The enlargement of breast tissue in males.

The process by which a duplicated gene accumulates mutations, leading to it no longer being functional as a gene.

An organism has more than two sets of chromosomes. This can happen through the duplication of an entire genome. Examples include wheat with six sets of chromosomes.

A duplication of an entire chromosome can occur during gamete formation, leading to extra copies of genes. These duplicated genes might acquire mutations that lead to new functions or become inactive pseudogenes.

A type of aneuploidy where a cell has one extra chromosome, resulting in a total of 2n+1 chromosomes.

The process of chromosome duplication can be a source of genetic diversity. Duplicated genes can evolve new functions or become inactive. These changes can lead to new traits and ultimately species diversification.

A condition where a cell has one fewer chromosome than usual, resulting in a total of 2n-1 chromosomes.

An organism with three sets of chromosomes (3n).

An organism with four sets of chromosomes (4n).

A type of reproduction where offspring develop from unfertilized eggs.

A common technique used in plant breeding that aims to induce polyploidy by using chemicals to inhibit chromosome segregation.

A hybrid plant species created by combining wheat and rye.

A chemical that inhibits chromosome segregation during meiosis, leading to polyploidy.

A type of polyploid where the additional sets of chromosomes are identical to the parent species. It usually arises from a single species and can occur through genome doubling.

A type of polyploid where the organism has two or more diploid genomes from different species. It often arises from hybridization and doubling of genomes.

An autopolyploid with three sets of chromosomes (AAA).

An autopolyploid with four sets of chromosomes (AAAA).

The process of creating new plant forms by manipulating chromosome numbers, often resulting in increased vigor, larger size, and altered characteristics.

The process of cell division that results in the production of gametes (sperm and egg cells).

A cell with a single set of chromosomes (n).