Mughal Dynasty: Babur, Humayun, and Sher Shah Suri

Mughal Dynasty Foundation and Babur

• The Mughal dynasty began in India in the early 16th century.
• Babur, the first Mughal ruler, crossed Afghanistan and reached the Punjab plains in 1526 AD.
• Babur was born in Fergana in 1483 and ascended to the throne at a young age.
• He defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the First Battle of Panipat.

Humayun and Sher Shah Suri

• Humayun succeeded Babur in 1530 and divided his inheritance among his brothers, as per Babur's will.
• Humayun started the construction of Purana Qila but could not finish it.
• Sher Shah Suri defeated Humayun, leading to Humayun's exile in Iran.
• Humayun died in 1556 due to a staircase accident.
• Sher Shah Suri was the son of an Afghan jagirdar from Jaunpur in Uttar Pradesh, and his kingdom stretched from Jhelum to Brahmaputra and from Himalayas to Narmada
• Sher Shah Suri improved the territories' administration, had a large standing army, and continued the practice of branding horses.
• Land revenue during Sher Shah's era was assessed based on land fertility, with the revenue being one-third of the produce, payable in cash or kind.
• Sher Shah built "sirais" or rest houses to encourage merchants to travel extensively, leading to trade growth.
• The new rupee coin introduced by Sher Shah Suri was called "rupiah."
• Sher Shah Suri's history was documented by Abbas Khan in 1579, detailing his administration.
• Sher Shah Suri died in 1545 because of a gunpowder explosion while laying siege to the fort of Kalinjar in Bundelkhand.

Akbar's Reign

• Akbar succeeded Humayun in 1556 at a young age.
• Akbar expanded the kingdom from Kabul to Bengal.
• He built the walled city of Fatehpur Sikri in 1571.
• The "nine courtiers" or Navratnas were prominent in Akbar's court.
• Akbar initiated the new religion, Din-i-Ilahi.
• Ain-i-Akbari by Abul Fazl is considered an administrative manual akin to a modern gazetteer, detailing Akbar's government and its departments.
• Akbar's policy toward the Rajputs involved marriage alliances and befriending them.
• Akbar married the princess of Amber, and made alliances with Rajput states of Amber, Bikaner, Jaisalmer and Ranthambore.
• The rich, fertile land of Bengal generated significant revenue for Akbar, and its seaports encouraged trade with Southeast Asia.
• Akbar conquered Kabul, Kandahar, Kashmir, and Balochistan, boosting trade between India, Persia, and Central Asia.
• The annexation of Gujarat during Akbar's reign provided the empire with additional revenue and access to the Gulf of Cambay.
• Land was measured, produce was averaged over ten years, and revenue was fixed at one-third of the produce, implemented by Raja Todar Mal.

Jahangir and Nur Jahan

• Jahangir succeeded Akbar in 1605.
• He was the first emperor to establish relations with the British East India Company in India.
• His empress, Nur Jahan, wielded significant power behind the throne.
• Jahangir was fond of drinking and Nur Jahan took most of the decisions in the court, thus became a co-regent
• She and her family members had important administrative posts during his reign

Shah Jahan's Rule

• Shah Jahan, Jahangir's third son, was born in Lahore in 1592.
• He was a patron of art and architecture.
• Shah Jahan commissioned architectural marvels such as the Taj Mahal, Jama Masjid, and Shalimar Gardens in Srinagar.
• The Peacock Throne also originated during his reign.
• Abdul Hamid Lahori wrote "Padshahnama", which gave valuable information about Shah Jahan's reem, and contains paintings of court life.
• Shahjahanabad was built when Shah Jahan moved the capital from Agra to Delhi.

Aurangzeb and the Decline

• Aurangzeb became emperor in 1658.
• He was an autocratic and deeply religious ruler, adhering to Islamic Sharia law.
• The Mughal Empire reached its peak territorial extent under Aurangzeb's rule.
• Revolts by subsidiary rulers challenged the empire's integrity by the 17th century.
• Aurangzeb re-imposed taxes on non-muslims.
• Aurangzeb executed Guru Tegh Bahadur, the ninth Guru of Sikhs in Delhi as he reacted to the policy of religious intolerance.
• Aurangzeb's Deccan policy was to conquer areas in south India

Mughal Legacy & Origins

• The Mughals were descendants of Genghis Khan (from their mother's side) and Timur (from their father's side).
• However, the Mughals preferred to be known for their Timurid ancestry.
• In 1739, Nadir Shah the Persian invader carried away the Peacock Throne after his return to Delhi.

Babur's Early Life and Conquests

• Babur inherited the kingdom of Fergana at age 11.
• He conquered Kabul in 1504.
• Daulat Khan Lodi invited Babur to India because Babur was fascinated with India's wealth
• After defeating Ibrahim Lodi at Panipat in 1526, Babur occupied Delhi and Agra, making Agra his capital, which marked the start of the Mughal Empire in India.
• Babur defeated Rana Sanga of Mewar and his allies at Kanawa in 1527.
• He conquered Gwalior, Chanderi etc, and defeated chiefs of Bengal and Bihar in 1529.

Babur's Personality, Writings, and Sources

• Babur was educated in Persian and Arabic.
• He wrote his autobiography, "Baburnama," in Turkish.
• Sources about the Mughals include Jahangir's and Gulbadan Begum’s biographies, accounts from court historians like Abul Fazal, travelers like Bernier, and Christian missionaries like Father Adolf.

Humayun's Struggles and Return

• Humayun faced challenges maintaining his kingdom, battling Sher Shah Suri and Bahadur Shah of Gujarat.
• After defeats by Sher Shah, Humayun became a king without a kingdom, seeking refuge in Sindh, Rajasthan, and Persia.
• Akbar was born when Humayun was at a market in Sindh.
• In 1555, Humayun reoccupied Delhi and re-established his empire in India.

Sher Shah Suri's Administration

• Sher Shah established a monarchical system of government.
• The kingdom was divided into provinces, then into "circars," then "parganas" (districts), and finally villages.
• A "willett" represented the lowest unit of administration.
• Parganas were overseen by a "Shiqdar" (law and order) and a "amil" or "munsif" (revenue collection).
• Sher Shah directly supervised the administration and ensured impartial justice.
• An efficient spy system kept him informed of events in his empire.

Akbar's Early Life and Education

• Akbar was born in 1542 in Amarkot while Humayun was in exile.
• Akbar's tutor was Bairam Khan.
• Despite being illiterate, Akbar enjoyed hearing others read and had a fondness for animals and painting.
• At 13, he became governor of Punjab but focused on shooting and hunting.

Consolidation and Expansion Under Akbar

• In 1556, Himu, chief minister and general of Muhammad Adil Shah, occupied Delhi declaring himself ruler.
• Akbar and Bairam Khan defeated Himu in the Second Battle of Panipat, crushing Afghan power and reoccupying Delhi and Agra.
• Akbar conquered Malwa in 1561.
• Gujarat was conquered in 1578.

Akbar's Administration Structure

• The prime minister was called "wazir" or "divan" and headed the revenue department.
• Qazi was the chief justice and Mir Bakshi was in charge of military administration.
• Bhavani Ahram was the People's Court and the Vanek Hass was the court for nobility and royalty.
• The empire was divided into "subas" (provinces), further divided into "circars" and "parganas." A pargana consisted of many villages
• The Subedar was a provincial governor of the "suba"

Mansabdari System and Revenue Administration

• The Mansabdari system was introduced, where officers held a "mansab" (rank) and maintained a fixed number of troops.
• Land revenue was the main income source, with Raja Todar Mal implementing land measurement and revenue assessment.
• Land revenue was often waived in case of drought or floods

Akbar's Religious Policy

• Akbar abolished Jizya and pilgrimage tax.
• He built a Hall of Worship (Ibadat Khana) to discuss religious matters.
• In 1582, Akbar promulgated a new religious order called Din-i-Ilahi, which few people joined.

Jahangir's Rule

• Jahangir's son, Khusrau, rebelled against him and was defeated.
• Relations with the Portuguese were cordial, with trade concessions granted.
• Prince Khurram (Shah Jahan) captured the fort of Kangra.
• Sir Thomas Roe, the English ambassador, vividly portrayed Jahangir's court.

Shah Jahan's Succession and Challenges

• After Shah Jahan fell ill in 1657, a war of succession broke out among his four sons: Dara, Suja, Murad, and Aurangzeb.
• Aurangzeb emerged victorious, imprisoning his father and defeating his brothers.

Aurangzeb's Reign and Policies

• Aurangzeb imposed taxes on non-Muslims in order to mitigate his economic constraints; this tax was known as "jizya."
• Aurangzeb's empire stretched from Kashmir in the north to Jinji in the south and from the Hindu Kush in the west to Chittagong in the east.
• Mughal arms lost Cooch Behar and Assam, but Chittagong (Islamabad) was captured.
• Bijapur and Golconda fell to Aurangzeb
• Rebellious hindus joined Shivaji and his Murata confederacy.

Land Revenue and Intermediaries

• The main source of income for the Mughal rulers was tax on the produce of the peasantry.
• Mughal administrators could drive zamindars to rebellion.

Rajput and Sikh Conflicts under Aurangzeb

• Aurangzeb had constant conflicts with Rajputs particularly in Maeva and Marwar
• Aurangzeb executed Guru Tegh Bahadur in Delhi for reacting to his religious intolerance.
• Guru Gobind Singh organized the Sikhs into a military crew.

Aurangzeb's Deccan Wars

• Aurangzeb fought the Marathas and expanded his territories until his death in 1707.
• Shivaji's son Sambhaji was defeated and executed by Aurangzeb, who also imprisoned Sambhaji's infant son Shahu.

An overview of the early Mughal dynasty in India, focusing on Babur and Humayun. It covers Babur's invasion and establishment of the dynasty as well as Humayun's reign and conflicts, including his defeat by Sher Shah Suri. Key figures and their contributions in the 16th century are highlighted.