Moral Agent and Ethics

Part I - The Moral Agent

• Part one is about the moral agent

1.1 The Moral Act

• Humans have the innate tendency to seek the truth
• Philosophy questions what is considered true
• Philosophical inquiry involves questioning beliefs and assumptions of reality
• Philosophy studies general and fundamental problems like existence, knowledge, values, and reason
• Philosophers question moral behaviors, asking what is good, how good is distinguished from evil, the difference between moral and immoral, and what is justice
• Philosophy and ethics form a relationship that provides different perspectives of reasoning to understand how right differs from wrong

Major Areas of Ethics

• Metaethics attempts to determine the meanings of terms such as right, good, virtue, and justice
• Approaches in metaethics include cognitivism, intuitionism, naturalism, and subjectivism
• Normative Ethics studies ethical actions and questions the standards of morally good or bad
• Normative Ethics addresses why one should be moral and how to know what is right or wrong
• Normative Ethics has three major theories: Consequentialism, deontological ethics, and virtue ethics
• Ethics of Religion refers to a system of beliefs and practices by which people relate their lives to a supernatural force or being like God

Philosophical Methods of Inquiry

• Branches of philosophy present methods of inquiry in knowing and understanding the truth.
• When conducting a philosophical inquiry, philosophers employ a methodology of systematic procedures
• Philosophical inquiry is a method for arriving at a clear meaning of common human issues in everyday life
• To address philosophical questions, a philosopher must be logical
• Logic is the science and art of correct thinking using methods to achieve accuracy and objectivity in explaining what is a valid argument
• Epistemology is the study of the theory of knowledge, particularly its scope, method, and validity
• Metaphysics is the study of the nature of what is real and apparent

Philosophical Inquiry Process

• Philosophers follow a process in explaining the standards of what is considered morally good or bad, by knowing the certainty or uncertainty of information
• Process also includes determining or evaluating ethical behavior
• Statement of the Problem involves identifying a problem that needs solution
• Formulation of a hypothesis creates a tentative explanation of the problem
• Drawing a conclusion involves establishing and justifying based on evidence and findings
• Reporting of the Results enables other researchers to verify the results and ensure they are accurate

1.2 Moral Dilemma

• Moral dilemmas are faced when individuals are confronted with conflicting answers to the question "What is Right?"
• The English Oxford Dictionary defines a moral dilemma as a situation where a difficult choice has to be made
• Moral dilemmas relate primarily to the Principle of Double Effect

Self-Defense Justification

• Self-defense is morally justifiable if the intention is to save one's life
• The act of self-defense may have double effect
• Self-defense is not unlawful unless unnecessary violence was used

Elements in Moral Decision-Making

• The act must be morally good or at least indifferent
• The agent may not positively will the bad effect but may permit it
• The good effect must flow from the action at least as immediately as the bad effect
• The good effect must be sufficiently desirable to compensate for allowing the bad effect
• The evil effect must not precede the good effect; the end does not justify the means
• There must be a sufficiently grave reason calling for the act in its good effect
• The intention of the agent must be honest

Steps in Solving Moral Dilemmas

• Examine the acts in relation to the agent
• Determine the consequences of the act
• Identify the intention of the act
• Decide in accordance to divine and natural laws that govern moral life

1.3 Ethics and Culture

• Ethics or moral philosophy, studies principles distinguishing right from wrong, and good from bad
• The word "ethics" comes from the Greek word "ethos," meaning custom or habit
• Ethics is theoretical and concerned with moral ideals, while morals refer to their practice
• Ethics varies across cultures, influencing how ethical problems are perceived
• Culture can be defined as the complex whole of knowledge, beliefs, art, laws, morals, and customs acquired by individuals in society (Edward Taylor)
• Culture consists of shared values, norms, and beliefs that shape human behavior

Characteristics of Culture

• Culture is shared and transmitted through language and symbols
• Culture is learned and acquired, not innate, gained through experience
• Culture is a social phenomenon formed through human interaction
• Culture gratifies human needs and exists because it fulfills basic human needs
• Culture is dynamic, meaning it evolves through discoveries, inventions, and adaptations
• Culture is integrated; components like values, beliefs, and norms work together as a system

Cultural Views

• Ethnocentrism judges other cultures based on one's own cultural standards, like viewing eating with hands as unhygienic
• Xenocentrism describes the tendency to value other cultures more highly than one's own
• Culture is a shared way of life of people living together in the same environment
• No culture is perfect
• Every culture is different from the other
• Cultures are equal in the sense that all human beings are equal in dignity as human beings

Organizational Culture

• Organizational culture is a system of shared assumptions, values, and beliefs that governs how people behave in organizations
• These shared values strongly influence individuals in the organization and dictate their appearance and job performance
• Ethical standards are the explicit code of conduct an organization sets for its members to follow
• Unethical standards are practices perpetuated in the organization when superiors or leaders approve, support, or ignore them

National Culture

• National culture refers to shared values, beliefs, customs, practices, and behaviors common to a nation
• Examples include traditions like "pagmamano," languages like Pilipino/Filipino, and religions like Catholicism
• National culture and ethics together shape how individuals and organizations behave and interact, including the way they approach moral dilemmas and decision-making

1.4 Cultural Relativism

• Cultural relativism is the idea that ethical norms differ from one society or culture to another
• Cultural relativism implies that there are no universal norms of morality; morality differs from one culture to another
• Cultural relativism encourages respect and tolerance when interacting with other cultures

Strengths of Cultural Relativism

• Cultural relativism helps avoid moral dictatorship
• It respects diversity and the plurality of rich cultural and historical traditions
• Cultural relativism respects the beliefs of different countries
• Cultural Relativism does not judge or criticize another culture’s practices as superior or inferior
• Cultural relativism promotes unity and harmony among cultures
• It promotes deeper understanding and respect, which improves relationships among diverse cultures

Problems with Cultural Relativism

• Cultural relativism can lead to tolerance and acceptance of social injustices and inhumane activities
• Rational people assert that some acts should not be tolerated; relativism may undermine this stance due to cultural diversity
• Cultural relativism can result in the rejection of higher universal or common moral standards
• Morality can be reduced to customs, traditions, and cultural preferences using cultural relativism
• Cultural relativism assumes that knowledge of another culture is impossible
• It may be impossible to fully understand and immerse oneself in a foreign culture
• Cultural relativism can lead to vulnerability to racial discrimination
• It could cause some people to think that their culture is superior to others

Moral Character and Stages of Moral Development

• Moral character refers to the qualities, dispositions, and habits that contribute to a person's ethical behavior
• Qualities are traits that define a person's moral character, such as honesty, integrity, compassion, responsibility, fairness, and courage
• Dispositions are the tendencies or inclinations to act in certain ways
• Habits are repeated behavior patterns ingrained over time
• Living by Values: consistently acting in accordance with principles, even when it's inconvenient or challenging
• Making ethical choices: considering the consequences of actions and striving to do what's right, even sacrificing personal gain
• Taking responsibility: owning up to mistakes and striving to make amends

What is Moral Character

• Integrity: Being honest, trustworthy, and standing by principles, even when difficult
• Compassion: Caring about others and showing empathy
• Responsibility: Being accountable for actions and taking ownership of choices
• Fairness: Treating everyone equally and with justice
• Courage: Standing up for what you believe in, even when challenging

Stages of Moral Development

• Lawrence Kohlberg identified 3 stages of moral development
• Preconventional: The idea of right or wrong depends on the response of others:
  • Obedience and punishment
  • Individualism and exchange
• Conventional morality is the transition from selfish to mature reasoning:
  • Good interpersonal relationships
  • Maintaining social order
• Post Conventional: Involves preservation of life at all costs and the importance of dignity:
  • Social Contract and individual rights
  • Universal principle

Sustainable Development Goals (SDG)

• SDG No.4 Quality Education: Access vs Quality
• SDG No.5 Gender Equality: Reproductive rights and moral values
• SDG No.10 Reduced Inequality: Migration and inequality

SDG & Education

• SDG 4 (Quality Education) helps individuals develop critical thinking skills necessary for moral decision-making
• Education equips individuals with frameworks to identify, analyze, and resolve moral dilemmas
• Education teaches ethical principles within diverse cultural contexts, fostering understanding and tolerance
• Education helps individuals understand different cultural perspectives on morality, promoting critical engagement with cultural relativism

Other SDGs

• SDG 5 (Gender Equality) means that moral principles apply fairly to all genders, and says no to gender bias
• SDG 10 (Reduced Inequalities) indicates that inequalities create environments where ethical principles are not equally applied whether economic, social, or political