Modern Middle East History: Cold War and Nasserism

The Independent Middle East in the Cold War: Nasserism and the Radicalization of Arab Politics

Cold War and Bipolarism in the Middle East

• The Cold War shaped the Middle East by allowing countries in the region to play between the US and USSR, using them as instruments for their own state interests.
• Bipolarism brought states in the region together, aligning with one of the two blocs to gain aid (economic or military) and consolidate their national power.

Regionalization and National Interest

• The 1950s-60s saw regionalization of politics, with states trying to counterbalance the power of the blocs and create a third pole of power.
• States in the region used bipolarism as an opportunity for their own national interest, particularly in the context of pan-Arabism.

Iran

Crisis with the US and USSR

• Iran's crisis with the US and USSR was occasioned by Soviet troops' presence in the region post-WW2.
• The Iranian government lodged a complaint with the UNSC, and the USSR troops agreed to withdraw from the country.
• The US responded with the Truman Doctrine, an application of containment policy to prevent states from falling under Communist influence.

Muhammad Mosaddeq and the National Front

• Muhammad Mosaddeq succeeded in controlling oppositional voices and formed the National Front in 1949.
• The National Front was composed of middle-class people, Ulama, and Western-educated professionals.
• Mosaddeq called for the nationalization of the Iranian oil industry, leading to boycotts and financial crisis.

The CIA-Backed Coup and the Royal Dictatorship

• The US and UK dispatched CIA agents to assist Iranian officers in organizing a coup against Mosaddeq.
• The royal dictatorship returned to rule the country, and the National Front was disbanded.
• The Tudeh Party was destroyed, and SAVAK was established as an internal security organization.

Egypt

1942 Cairo Chances and the Abdin Incident

• In 1942, the new PM of Egypt, Ali-Maher, was seen as a threat to the UK's control over the country.
• The UK deployed its army in front of the royal palace, demonstrating its power and control over Egypt.

The Muslim Brotherhood

• The Muslim Brotherhood profited from the political distance between the population and the government, radicalizing their views and ideology.
• The Brotherhood created militias and carried out guerrilla attacks along the Suez Canal.

The 1948-49 Arab-Israeli War

• Egypt, Syria, and Jordan entered the conflict to consolidate their standing vis-à-vis the rising radical cells within the military.
• The defeat of the Arab armies in 1949 delegitimized the governments.

The Free Officers and Nasserism

• In 1952, a group of young military officers, including Gamal Abdel Nasser, carried out a coup d'etat and seized control of the government.
• The Free Officers' 6-point program called for the destruction of British colonialism, removal of Egyptian collaborators, end of feudalism, and establishment of social justice and a strong national army.

Revolutionism and the Revolutionary Command Council

• The Free Officers' revolution was a top-down process of change, using the concept of mass politics as a political instrument to legitimize themselves as the new political leadership.
• The Revolutionary Command Council (RCC) served as the executive body of the government.### Social Contract and Progressive Social Contract
• The concept of social contract between rulers and the population was introduced in the Middle East
• Progressive social contract is based on ideas of:
  • State protection towards individuals
  • Granting socio-economic rights
  • Redistribution of state wealth through sovereignty and nationalization

Populist Authoritarian Regimes

• Brought about new social contracts that were egalitarian in terms of class relationships but detrimental to democracy and individual agency
• Leaders used harmonic politics to co-opt the population, suppressing dissonant voices
• Examples of populist authoritarian regimes include:
  • Nasser's regime in Egypt
  • Ba'athist regimes in Syria and Iraq

State-Centered Politics

• The state became the center of power in the Middle East, especially in post-colonial times
• Political elites used state institutions to control the system and population
• The state was used to co-opt and control the masses, often depriving them of political agency

Transformation of Elite Groups

• New elites emerged from the lower middle classes, primarily rural backgrounds
• They were empowered by their revolutionary visions and modernist projects
• Examples of new elites include:
  • Nasser and the Free Officers in Egypt
  • Ba'athist cells in Syria and Iraq

Nasserist Ideology

• Key elements of Nasserist ideology include:
  • Pan Arabism
  • Nationalism
  • Anti-colonialism
  • Anti-imperialism
  • Nativism
  • Populism
  • Charismatic leadership
• Nasserist ideology was a blueprint for similar movements in the region
• The ideology emphasized the importance of self-realization and cultural authenticity

Arab Socialism

• Arab socialist regimes aimed to bridge the gap between "property groups" and "unproperty groups" through welfare distribution
• The regime's focus was on redistribution of wealth, rather than elimination of private property
• Arab socialism was distinct from orthodox socialism and communism

Nasser's Form of Governing

• Nasser's regime was marked by:
  • Abolition of the monarchy and declaration of the Republic
  • Dissolution of the parliament and ban on political parties
  • Creation of the Liberation Rally and later the National Union
  • Agrarian law reform to limit land ownership and benefit peasants
  • Introduction of services to co-opt the population and buy their allegiance### The Egyptian Bill of Rights
• Avoided discrimination on the basis of sex, race, and religion
• Designed to represent the will of the president, not the population

Post-Revolution Egypt (1956)

• Nasser became president with 99.99% of the vote
• Authority was undisputed and limitless

The Sudanese Cause and the Suez Canal Crisis

• Relationship with Britain was a pressing foreign policy matter for the RCC
• Britain recognized Sudan's right to self-determination in 1953
• Sudan declared independence in 1954
• Suez Canal Crisis: Egypt and Britain signed a treaty in 1954 for the evacuation of British troops from the Suez Canal

Nasser's Foreign Policy

• Wanted to launch state consolidation, modernization, and progress
• Needed aid and used "active neutrality" to get funds
• Refused to join the Baghdad Pact, which was seen as an extension of Western imperialism
• Concluded an agreement with Czechoslovakia in 1955 to purchase Soviet military equipment
• Nationalized the Suez Canal in 1956, proclaiming that revenues would be used to fund development projects

The Suez Crisis (1956)

• Israel, Britain, and France launched a tripartite aggression against Egypt
• The US and USSR called for an immediate cease-fire, which was eventually accepted
• Egypt was defeated, but Nasser emerged as a moral and political victor

Pan-Arabism and Nasserism

• Nasser validated a new norm of international conduct, pan-Arabism
• Created the United Arab Republic (UAR) with Syria in 1958
• Engaged in the Yemen War (1962-1968) and created the Palestinian Liberation Organization (PLO) in 1964
• Sought to regionalize politics and implement pan-Arabism, which was seen as a destabilizing factor in the region

Consequences of the Suez Crisis

• Egypt: Nasser emerged as a pan-Arab hero, and pan-Arabism was seen as a threat to conservative and pro-Western regimes in the region
• Israel: enhanced its image as an aggressor in the Middle East
• Britain and France: alliance with Israel was seen as an immense offense to Arab states

Regional Impact of Nasserism

• Lower middle classes were inspired by Nasser's ideology
• Conservatives and pro-Western regimes felt threatened by Nasserism
• Iraq and Jordan were vulnerable to the resonance of pan-Arabism and the impact it had on delegitimizing their elites