Microbiology Final Exam Study Guide
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Questions and Answers

Which of the following processes is NOT a method by which ATP can be generated?

  • Oxidative phosphorylation
  • Photophosphorylation
  • Fermentative phosphorylation (correct)
  • Substrate level phosphorylation

What is the main outcome of the transition step in cellular respiration?

  • Direct generation of ATP from pyruvate
  • Production of acetyl-CoA and NADH (correct)
  • Formation of glucose from pyruvate
  • Conversion of pyruvate to three-carbon molecules

Which group of organisms is classified solely based on their energy and carbon source?

  • Anaerobes
  • Cyanobacteria
  • Chemoheterotrophs (correct)
  • Glycolytic bacteria

Which microbial classification prefers temperatures above 50°C?

<p>Thermophiles (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of biofilms in microbial communities?

<p>To form resistant structures adhering to surfaces (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which method can be used to obtain pure cultures of microbes?

<p>Streak plate method (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How can microbial growth be measured indirectly?

<p>Measuring optical density of cultures (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which physical method is commonly used to control microbial growth?

<p>Irradiation (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What process occurs in the ribosome during protein synthesis?

<p>Translation (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of operon can be activated by the binding of a substrate to a repressor?

<p>Inducible operon (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common method for controlling microbial growth that utilizes chemicals?

<p>Use dilution test (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a direct cause of mutations?

<p>DNA replication errors (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement is true regarding prokaryotic cells used in biotechnology?

<p>They are cheap and easy to grow. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of ligase in biotechnology?

<p>To join DNA fragments together (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of mutation results in a premature stop codon?

<p>Nonsense mutation (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of these methods can introduce additional genetic information to bacteria?

<p>Conjugation (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the correct definition of microbiology?

<p>The study of small organisms including bacteria and viruses. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which process describes how prokaryotic cells typically reproduce?

<p>Binary fission (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes Gram negative bacteria from Gram positive bacteria?

<p>Gram negative bacteria have a thin peptidoglycan layer and an outer membrane. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do enzymes play in metabolic processes?

<p>They decrease the activation energy required for reactions. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement accurately describes the endosymbiotic theory?

<p>It describes how certain organelles originated from symbiotic bacteria. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the plasma membrane?

<p>To act as a barrier between the cell and its environment. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of microscopy provides the highest magnification and resolution?

<p>Electron microscopy (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of competitive inhibitors in enzymatic reactions?

<p>They bind to the active site, preventing substrate binding. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about viral replication is accurate?

<p>RNA viruses generate more RNA and protein in the cytoplasm. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes endemic diseases from epidemics?

<p>Endemic diseases are always present in small amounts, while epidemics occur with higher incidence. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes the role of prions?

<p>They are infectious proteins responsible for spongiform encephalopathies. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does LD50 measure in the context of pathogens?

<p>The amount of a toxin required to kill 50% of a population. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which feature is characteristic of endotoxins?

<p>They are lipopolysaccharides that can cause fever in patients. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In what ways can pathogens damage host tissues?

<p>By secreting toxins, digesting extracellular structures, or stealing nutrients. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of nosocomial infections?

<p>They are hospital-acquired infections, often complex due to antibiotic resistance. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is not part of the first line of defense against pathogens?

<p>Phagocytosis (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is primarily responsible for the symptoms of pain, heat, redness, and swelling at the site of injury or infection?

<p>Secretion of factors leading to vascular leakage (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which complement pathway is initiated specifically through antigen-antibody interactions?

<p>Classical complement pathway (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do antibodies primarily contribute to immune defenses?

<p>Through opsonization, aggregation, and neutralization (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of immunity specifically involves the production of antibodies?

<p>Humoral immunity (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What function do dendritic cells serve in the adaptive immune response?

<p>Processing and presenting antigens (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which mechanism does vaccination utilize to prepare the immune system?

<p>Introducing antigens to create memory cells (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of helper T cells in the adaptive immune system?

<p>To activate other immune cells (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary significance of the activation of the alternative complement pathway?

<p>It is activated by microbial presence (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes type IV hypersensitivity from types I, II, and III?

<p>It is cell mediated. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which mechanism is primarily responsible for transplant rejection?

<p>Differences in recipient and donor MHC class I molecules. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do NK cells and cytotoxic T cells primarily function in combating cancer?

<p>By inducing apoptosis in infected or abnormal cells. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common cause of antimicrobial drug resistance in microbes?

<p>Mutations leading to impaired drug entry. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role does folic acid synthesis play in bacterial metabolism?

<p>It is necessary for nucleic acid synthesis. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about anti-retroviral therapy is correct?

<p>It targets the HIV replication cycle at different stages. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of antimicrobial agents target the plasma membrane of microbes?

<p>Polymyxins. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of semi-synthetic penicillins compared to natural penicillins?

<p>They are less sensitive to penicillinase compared to natural penicillins. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Microbial Nomenclature

Microbes are named using a two-part system (genus and species) based on Latin.

Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Cells

Prokaryotes (bacteria) lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles, while eukaryotes (fungi, protists) have them.

Gram-positive vs. Gram-negative Bacteria

Gram-positive bacteria have thick peptidoglycan cell walls, while gram-negative bacteria have thin peptidoglycan layers with an outer membrane.

Microbial Staining

Used in light microscopy to improve visibility of translucent microbes.

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Binary Fission

The primary method of cell division in prokaryotes.

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Microbial Measurement Units

Microbes are measured in micrometers (µm) and nanometers (nm).

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Enzyme Inhibitors

Substances that decrease enzyme activity by binding to the active site (competitive) or allosteric site (noncompetitive).

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Endospores

Hardy survival structures produced by some bacteria (e.g., Bacillus, Clostridium) under harsh conditions.

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Substrate-level phosphorylation

A method of ATP generation where ATP is directly formed from an intermediate in a metabolic pathway.

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Glycolysis

The breakdown of glucose into two pyruvate molecules, producing ATP and NADH.

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Krebs Cycle

A metabolic pathway that breaks down acetyl-CoA, producing ATP, NADH, and FADH2, and releasing CO2.

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Electron Transport Chain

A series of protein complexes that transfer electrons and generate a proton motive force used to produce ATP.

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Chemoheterotroph

An organism that gets energy from chemical compounds and carbon from organic molecules.

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Psychrophile

An organism that prefers cold temperatures for growth.

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Biofilms

Bacterial communities adhering to surfaces, forming structures that are hard to kill.

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Pure Culture

A culture containing only one type of microorganism.

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Microbe Control Methods

Heat, disinfectants, and antiseptics are used to control microbes. Heat is physical, while disinfectants/antiseptics are chemical methods.

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Endospores (Microbes)

Some microbes can create tough, resistant structures called endospores that make them harder to kill.

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DNA Replication

The process of copying DNA before cell division. DNA polymerase uses an existing DNA strand as a template.

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Transcription (Gene Expression)

The process of creating RNA from a DNA template. RNA polymerase builds the RNA molecule.

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Operons

Genetic elements in bacteria that control gene expression (transcription) together.

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Bacterial Mutations

Changes in a bacteria's DNA, caused by errors in DNA replication or mutagens.

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Biotechnology

Using microbes and genetic tools to make useful products.

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Site-directed mutagenesis

A way to specifically alter DNA sequences to study gene function.

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Viral Replication (DNA vs. RNA)

DNA viruses replicate their DNA in the nucleus, while RNA viruses create more RNA and proteins in the cytoplasm.

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Viral-Induced Cancers

Chronic viral infections or infections with retroviruses can lead to cancer.

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Microbiome Function

The community of microbes living in and on the human body helps with digestion and prevents pathogens, also produces important molecules.

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Disease Transmission

Diseases can be transmitted directly (contact) or indirectly (via fomites).

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Endotoxins

Lipids released by Gram-negative bacteria causing fever and hard to destroy.

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Exotoxins

Proteins secreted by Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, effective in small amounts but heat-degradable.

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Phagocytosis

Neutrophils or macrophages engulf and destroy microbes.

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Innate Immunity - 1st line

The body's first defense against pathogens with physical and chemical barriers like skin and mucous membranes.

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Hypersensitivity Type IV

An immune response mediated by T cells, causing delayed reactions (e.g., contact dermatitis).

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Autoimmune Diseases

Immune system attacks the body's own tissues, causing diseases like rheumatoid arthritis and lupus.

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Transplant Rejection

Immune system rejects transplanted organs due to differences in MHC class I molecules.

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Antibiotics

Drugs that kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria.

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Antimicrobial Drug Targets

Antibiotics target specific structures or processes in microbes, like cell wall synthesis or DNA replication.

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Drug Resistance

Microbes develop mechanisms to resist antibiotics, like mutations that prevent the drug from entering or inactivating it.

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Antiviral Drugs

Drugs that inhibit viral replication by targeting different stages of the viral life cycle.

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Disk-Diffusion Test

A method to test the sensitivity of microbes to antibiotics by measuring the zone of inhibition around antibiotic disks.

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Inflammation

A localized response to injury or infection characterized by pain, heat, redness, and swelling. Caused by vascular leakage due to the release of inflammatory factors.

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Fever

An elevated body temperature caused by the release of pyrogens, which trigger prostaglandin production in the hypothalamus, resetting the body's thermostat.

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Complement System

A cascade of proteins in the blood that helps fight infections by opsonizing microbes, triggering inflammation, and causing cell lysis.

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Humoral immunity

Immunity mediated by B cells, which produce antibodies that circulate in the blood and lymph.

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Cellular immunity

Immunity mediated by T cells, which directly attack infected cells or stimulate other immune cells.

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Antigen

A molecule, typically from a pathogen, that is recognized by the immune system, triggering an immune response.

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Memory cells

Specialized immune cells (T and B cells) that remember previous encounters with specific pathogens, allowing for a faster and stronger immune response to subsequent exposures.

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Vaccination

The process of introducing antigens to the body to induce immunity and protect against diseases.

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Study Notes

Microbiology Final Exam Study Guide

  • Ch1: Introduction to Microbiology

    • Microbiology studies microorganisms like bacteria, viruses, protozoa, algae, fungi, and helminths.
    • Microbial names are based on Latin, using genus and species.
    • Microbiology includes fields like bacteriology, virology, parasitology, mycology, and immunology.
    • Microbes play essential roles in various biological processes and goods production.

  • Ch3: Microscopy

    • Microbes are measured in micrometers (µm) and nanometers (nm).
    • Microscopes used in microbiology include light and electron microscopes.
    • Staining techniques enhance contrast for light microscopy.

  • Ch4: Cell Biology

    • Eukaryotic cells have multiple linear chromosomes and organelles (nucleus, ER, Golgi, etc).
    • Prokaryotic cells lack these structures and reproduce via binary fission.
    • Prokaryotic cell structures include cell walls, pili, fimbriae, and plasmids.
    • Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria differ in their cell wall structure.
    • Endospores are bacterial structures for survival.

  • Ch5: Metabolism

    • Metabolism includes catabolism (breaking down) and anabolism (building up).
    • Enzymes catalyze biochemical reactions.
    • ATP is generated via substrate-level phosphorylation, oxidative phosphorylation, and photophosphorylation.
    • Glycolysis, Krebs cycle, and electron transport chain are key metabolic pathways.
    • Fermentation is an alternative pathway.

  • Ch6: Microbial Growth

    • Microbes require specific physical and chemical conditions for growth.
    • Classification by temperature preferences (psychrophiles, psychrotrophs, mesophiles, thermophiles, extreme thermophiles).
    • Microbes can form biofilms.
    • Microbes can be grown on various media.
    • Microbial growth can be measured directly or indirectly.

  • Ch7: Microbial Growth Control

    • Microbial growth can be controlled physically (heat) or chemically (disinfectants/antiseptics).
    • Some microbes are resistant to certain control methods (endospores, capsules).
    • Methods for measuring growth include disk diffusion and dilution tests.

  • Ch8: Genetics

    • DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) is the genetic material; mRNA is a copy and protein is the product.
    • DNA replication precedes cell division.
    • Transcription is copying DNA to mRNA.
    • Translation is converting mRNA to protein.
    • Operons regulate gene expression in bacteria (inducible and repressible).
    • Mutations are changes in DNA sequence causing silent, missense, or nonsense mutations.

  • Ch9: Biotechnology

    • Biotechnology uses microbes and genetics to produce products.
    • Genetic engineering tools, like restriction enzymes and ligase.
    • Gene cloning methods (plasmids, PCR)
    • Importance of microbes in producing drugs, vaccines, etc,.

  • Ch10: Microbial Classification

    • Classifying organisms based on characteristics (FAMEs, hybridization, staining, biochemical assays)
    • Dichotomous keys are used to identify unknown microbes.
    • Cladograms show evolutionary relationship.

  • Ch11-12: Fungi/Protozoa

    • Fungi can be single-celled or multicellular, often having a chitin cell wall.
    • Protozoa are single-celled eukaryotes and can have animal-like behaviors. Many cause disease.

  • Ch13, 14 Viruses and Diseases

    • Viruses are acellular and require host cells to replicate (lytic, lysogenic cycles).
    • Pathogenic microbes cause diseases.
    • Epidemiological methods are used to study disease patterns.

  • Ch15-16: Immune Systems and Infectious Diseases

    • Immune responses protect against pathogens(humoral and cellular immunity)
    • Pathogens use various mechanisms to enter host cells and tissues.
    • Infectious diseases have distinct periods (incubation, prodromal, illness, decline, convalescence).

  • Ch17-18: Host-Pathogen Interactions and Immunity

    • Pathogens invade the body, circumventing host defenses by secreting enzymes, toxins, and other mechanisms.
    • Humoral immunity involves antibodies. Cellular immunity involves T cells.
    • Adaptive and innate mechanisms of host defense.

  • Ch19: Vaccines

    • Vaccination introduces antigens to build immunity against specific microbial pathogens.
    • Different vaccine types exist (live attenuated, killed, subunit, etc.)
    • Vaccines prevent diseases; they have relative safety profiles.

  • Ch20: Antimicrobial Drugs

    • Antimicrobial drugs target multiple microbial structures (cell walls, membranes, nucleic acids).
    • Various tests (disk diffusion, broth dilution) aid in determining the effectiveness of drugs.
    • Microbial resistance to drugs is becoming a significant concern.

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BIOL2380 Microbiology Final Exam Study Guide PDF

Description

Prepare for your Microbiology final exam with this comprehensive study guide. Cover essential topics including microbial diversity, microscopy techniques, and cell biology fundamentals. Test your knowledge and gain a deeper understanding of microorganisms and their roles in our world.

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