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What was the Chinese procedure called where practitioners blew a powder made from dried scabs of smallpox lesions into a healthy individual’s nose to gain protection from smallpox?
What was the Chinese procedure called where practitioners blew a powder made from dried scabs of smallpox lesions into a healthy individual’s nose to gain protection from smallpox?
Variolation
What was Edward Jenner’s contribution to science in the field of vaccines?
What was Edward Jenner’s contribution to science in the field of vaccines?
He created a new method of purposely infecting people with cowpox to spur immunity.
What disease was eradicated in the 20th century and which disease is targeted for eradication next?
What disease was eradicated in the 20th century and which disease is targeted for eradication next?
Smallpox was eradicated. Polio is targeted for eradication next.
Which study published in The Lancet in 1998 claimed a correlation between the MMR vaccine and the development of autism?
Which study published in The Lancet in 1998 claimed a correlation between the MMR vaccine and the development of autism?
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Which disease is showing the strongest reemergence in the US and UK due to declining vaccination rates?
Which disease is showing the strongest reemergence in the US and UK due to declining vaccination rates?
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What type of immunity do vaccines induce?
What type of immunity do vaccines induce?
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What is the concept of herd immunity?
What is the concept of herd immunity?
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What are live attenuated vaccines?
What are live attenuated vaccines?
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What are inactivated vaccines?
What are inactivated vaccines?
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What is an adjuvant in the context of vaccines?
What is an adjuvant in the context of vaccines?
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What super family of drugs work by blocking cell wall synthesis?
What super family of drugs work by blocking cell wall synthesis?
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What molecule do most bacterial cell walls consist of?
What molecule do most bacterial cell walls consist of?
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What is the function of beta-lactamases?
What is the function of beta-lactamases?
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How do beta-lactamase inhibitors such as clavulanate work?
How do beta-lactamase inhibitors such as clavulanate work?
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Which generation of cephalosporin is used to combat MRSA/ORSA strains?
Which generation of cephalosporin is used to combat MRSA/ORSA strains?
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What drug family is effective against a variety of multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacterial strains, so they are often reserved for strains that are healthcare-acquired?
What drug family is effective against a variety of multidrug-resistant (MDR) bacterial strains, so they are often reserved for strains that are healthcare-acquired?
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What does the abbreviation CRE stand for?
What does the abbreviation CRE stand for?
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What drug family is not a beta-lactam but inhibits cell wall synthesis?
What drug family is not a beta-lactam but inhibits cell wall synthesis?
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What is the etiological agent of the neglected tropical disease called leishmaniasis?
What is the etiological agent of the neglected tropical disease called leishmaniasis?
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What is the name of the glycopeptide drug used to treat MRSA and Clostridiodes difficile infections?
What is the name of the glycopeptide drug used to treat MRSA and Clostridiodes difficile infections?
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What are the differences between cutaneous, mucocutaneous, and visceral leishmaniasis?
What are the differences between cutaneous, mucocutaneous, and visceral leishmaniasis?
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What antibiotic is the Staphylococcus aureus strain VRSA resistant to?
What antibiotic is the Staphylococcus aureus strain VRSA resistant to?
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What was the reason there was so much death during the Spanish Influenza outbreak of 1918?
What was the reason there was so much death during the Spanish Influenza outbreak of 1918?
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Why is it recommended that individuals get an influenza vaccine every year?
Why is it recommended that individuals get an influenza vaccine every year?
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What is the cornea of the eye?
What is the cornea of the eye?
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Conjunctivitis is commonly known as 'pink eye'.
Conjunctivitis is commonly known as 'pink eye'.
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What type of virus causes Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS-CoV-1 and SARS-CoV-2) and Middle Eastern Respiratory Syndrome (MERS-CoV)?
What type of virus causes Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS-CoV-1 and SARS-CoV-2) and Middle Eastern Respiratory Syndrome (MERS-CoV)?
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____ is the leading cause of bacterial blindness in the United States.
____ is the leading cause of bacterial blindness in the United States.
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What host cell receptor does the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein bind to?
What host cell receptor does the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein bind to?
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List live tissues that express ACE2 receptor.
List live tissues that express ACE2 receptor.
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What occurs in the body if a patient develops Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) in severe cases of COVID-19?
What occurs in the body if a patient develops Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS) in severe cases of COVID-19?
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What is the difference between a viral variant and a viral strain?
What is the difference between a viral variant and a viral strain?
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What is Hanta Pulmonary Syndrome (HPS) and how is it contracted?
What is Hanta Pulmonary Syndrome (HPS) and how is it contracted?
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Define pulmonary edema.
Define pulmonary edema.
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What is the outermost, waterproof barrier that protects the inner basal level of cells from intruders?
What is the outermost, waterproof barrier that protects the inner basal level of cells from intruders?
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What cells comprise most of the epidermis? What is the main protein component of these cells?
What cells comprise most of the epidermis? What is the main protein component of these cells?
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What layer of skin is located below the epidermis?
What layer of skin is located below the epidermis?
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What layer associated with the skin is located below the dermis?
What layer associated with the skin is located below the dermis?
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What is melanin and what is its function?
What is melanin and what is its function?
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What enzyme is found in perspiration and what is its function?
What enzyme is found in perspiration and what is its function?
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What is sebum?
What is sebum?
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Define dermatoses.
Define dermatoses.
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What is the difference between a primary and secondary skin lesion?
What is the difference between a primary and secondary skin lesion?
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What is the etiological agent of chickenpox and how is it typically spread?
What is the etiological agent of chickenpox and how is it typically spread?
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What is the etiological agent of pneumococcal meningitis? Is it Gram positive or Gram negative? Is it encapsulated or non-encapsulated?
What is the etiological agent of pneumococcal meningitis? Is it Gram positive or Gram negative? Is it encapsulated or non-encapsulated?
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What bacteria cause most cases of meningitis in the United States?
What bacteria cause most cases of meningitis in the United States?
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What is the danger of S. pneumoniae exotoxin?
What is the danger of S. pneumoniae exotoxin?
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What is the etiological agent of Listeria meningitis? How are the bacteria transmitted to humans?
What is the etiological agent of Listeria meningitis? How are the bacteria transmitted to humans?
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What is the advantage of Listeria monocytogenes’ intracellular lifestyle?
What is the advantage of Listeria monocytogenes’ intracellular lifestyle?
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What is the etiological agent of Hansen’s disease?
What is the etiological agent of Hansen’s disease?
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What does a sandwich ELISA detect in a patient’s serum?
What does a sandwich ELISA detect in a patient’s serum?
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What does a positive reaction look like in a sandwich ELISA?
What does a positive reaction look like in a sandwich ELISA?
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What does a positive reaction indicate in a sandwich ELISA?
What does a positive reaction indicate in a sandwich ELISA?
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What is immunoJfluorescence microscopy?
What is immunoJfluorescence microscopy?
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What molecule is fluorescent tagged in immunoJfluorescence microscopy?
What molecule is fluorescent tagged in immunoJfluorescence microscopy?
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What is flow cytometry?
What is flow cytometry?
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What special piece of equipment is required for flow cytometry?
What special piece of equipment is required for flow cytometry?
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What do interferon gamma release assays (IGRAs) detect?
What do interferon gamma release assays (IGRAs) detect?
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What molecules do Western blots detect?
What molecules do Western blots detect?
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What does the abbreviation PCR stand for?
What does the abbreviation PCR stand for?
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What is Taq polymerase used for in PCR?
What is Taq polymerase used for in PCR?
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What is gel electrophoresis used for?
What is gel electrophoresis used for?
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What does real-time PCR (qPCR) use to visualize DNA copies?
What does real-time PCR (qPCR) use to visualize DNA copies?
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What is reverse transcription PCR (RT-PCR) useful for detecting?
What is reverse transcription PCR (RT-PCR) useful for detecting?
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Besides Taq polymerase, what additional enzyme is used in RT-PCR?
Besides Taq polymerase, what additional enzyme is used in RT-PCR?
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Why was the Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act of 2008 (GINA) passed?
Why was the Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act of 2008 (GINA) passed?
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What is recombinant DNA (rDNA) generated by?
What is recombinant DNA (rDNA) generated by?
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What are restriction enzymes used for in genetic engineering?
What are restriction enzymes used for in genetic engineering?
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What is the term for a process by which cells take up DNA from their environment?
What is the term for a process by which cells take up DNA from their environment?
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What type of tool is CRISPR-Cas9?
What type of tool is CRISPR-Cas9?
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What do microarray assays investigate generally?
What do microarray assays investigate generally?
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Define antimicrobial drugs.
Define antimicrobial drugs.
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Who discovered penicillin?
Who discovered penicillin?
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What is selective toxicity of a drug?
What is selective toxicity of a drug?
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What is the therapeutic index of a drug?
What is the therapeutic index of a drug?
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A drug with a high therapeutic index is safer than a drug with a narrow therapeutic index.
A drug with a high therapeutic index is safer than a drug with a narrow therapeutic index.
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What is half-life when referring to drugs?
What is half-life when referring to drugs?
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Study Notes
Chapter 14: Biomedical, Applications: Vaccines, Diagnostics, Therapeutics, and Molecular Methods
Section 14.1: A Brief History of Vaccines
- Variolation: a Chinese procedure that involved blowing a powder made from dried scabs of smallpox lesions into a healthy individual's nose to gain protection from smallpox.
- Edward Jenner's contribution: creating a new method of purposely infecting people with pathogens to spur immunity, specifically with cowpox.
- Louis Pasteur's contribution: developing an early version of the rabies vaccine to protect humans and a vaccine to protect cattle against anthrax.
- Eradication of smallpox: achieved in the 20th century, with polio being the next targeted disease, which may be difficult to achieve due to challenges in maintaining consistent vaccination access in war-torn areas.
- The 1998 Lancet study: a flawed study that claimed a correlation between the MMR vaccine and the development of autism, which was later retracted and led to the lead author losing his medical license.
Section 14.2: Overview of Vaccines
- Vaccines induce artificially acquired active immunity.
- Immunological memory must be stimulated for a vaccine to be effective.
- Herd immunity: a concept where a sufficient percentage of the population is vaccinated, protecting non-vaccinated individuals from disease.
- Vulnerable populations protected by herd immunity: babies who have not yet been fully vaccinated and immune-compromised individuals.
- Shingles is a sequela to chickenpox, meaning it is a consequence that occurs after having chickenpox.
- Live attenuated vaccines: contain pathogens that have been altered to not cause disease, but are still infectious.
- Benefits of live attenuated vaccines: stimulate potent immunological responses, broader protection, and long-lived memory.
- Drawbacks of live attenuated vaccines: can cause disease in immune-compromised hosts, mutate to an infectious form, and potentially transmit other infectious agents.
- Inactivated vaccines: consist of whole inactivated pathogens or parts of pathogens.
- Advantages of inactivated vaccines: stable at room temperature, safe for immune-compromised patients, and lack of infectivity.
- Disadvantage of inactivated vaccines: limited exposure to antigens, requiring booster doses.
- Difference between inactivated whole-agent and subunit vaccines: whole-agent vaccines contain the entire pathogen, while subunit vaccines consist of purified parts of the pathogen.
- Adjuvants: pharmacological additives that enhance the body's natural immune response to an antigen.
- Recombinant subunit vaccines: use genetic engineering to produce antigens.
- Toxoid vaccines: use naturally occurring bacterial toxins that have been purified and inactivated.
- Conjugate vaccines: link polysaccharides to a protein antigen to stimulate an immune response.
- mRNA vaccines: use genetic instructions to build an antigenic protein, triggering an immune response.
Section 14.3: Immunological Diagnostic Testing
- Serology: the study of what is in a patient's serum.
- Agglutination: a reaction where antibodies bind antigens into a clump.
- Plaque reduction neutralization test (PRNT): detects patient antibodies against a specific virus.
- ELISA (Enzyme-Linked Immunosorbent Assay): a diagnostic test that detects specific antigens or antibodies in a patient's serum.
- Direct ELISA: detects specific antigens in a patient's serum.
- Indirect ELISA: detects specific antibodies in a patient's serum.
- Sandwich ELISA: detects specific antigens in a patient's serum, but is more sensitive and overcomes the downside of the direct ELISA.
- Immunofluorescence microscopy: a protocol that uses fluorescent-tagged antibodies to detect specific antigens in tissue or cell samples.
- Flow cytometry: a process that sorts cells using a flow cytometer and is useful for enumerating specific cells.
- Interferon Gamma Release Assays (IGRAs): a test that measures how a patient's T cells respond to Mycobacterium tuberculosis antigens.
- Western blot: a diagnostic test that detects specific proteins in a sample and reveals the size of the protein being detected.
Section 14.4: Selected Genetic Applications in Medicine
- PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction): a method that creates billions of copies of a target gene in a few hours.
- Taq polymerase: a heat-resistant DNA polymerase used in PCR.
- Thermocycler: a machine that controls the heat of the reaction, cycling between different temperatures.
- Gel electrophoresis: a method used to separate molecules based on their size.
- Real-time PCR (quantitative PCR or qPCR): a modified PCR method that uses fluorescence imaging to visualize DNA copies as they are made.
- RT-PCR (Reverse Transcription PCR): a method that detects RNA in a sample, such as the genome of an RNA virus.
- Reverse transcriptase: an enzyme used in RT-PCR to build DNA that is complementary to RNA molecules.
- Genetic Information Nondiscrimination Act of 2008 (GINA): a law that protects patients from discrimination based on genetic information.
- Recombinant DNA (rDNA): DNA generated by combining DNA from different organisms.
- Restriction enzymes: enzymes used to generate compatible or sticky ends of complementary base pairs between the copied DNA and the plasmid to construct recombinant DNA.
- Transformation: a process by which cells take up DNA from their environment.
- CRISPR-Cas9: a gene-editing tool that uses a guide RNA to find a specific genetic sequence and a Cas9 enzyme to cut the targeted DNA sequence.
- Gene therapy: the process of introducing genetic material that is not a human cell as a treatment.### Broad-Spectrum and Narrow-Spectrum Antimicrobial Drugs
- Broad-spectrum drugs: effective against both gram-negative and gram-positive bacterial cells
- Narrow-spectrum drugs: target a limited range of bacteria, preferred because they present less disruption to the normal microbiota
Empiric Therapy
- Standard, accepted, or typical treatment based on clinical presentation in the absence of definitive or complete clinical data
- Used when the exact bacterium causing the issue is unknown
Prolonged Treatment with Broad-Spectrum Antimicrobial Drugs
- Can disrupt the normal microbiota, leading to infections such as Clostridioides difficile infection
Bacteriostatic and Bactericidal Antimicrobial Drugs
- Bacteriostatic drugs: prevent bacteria from growing
- Bactericidal drugs: actively kill bacteria
Antibiotics, Synthetic Antimicrobials, and Semisynthetic Antimicrobials
- Antibiotics: naturally occurring antimicrobial compounds
- Synthetic antimicrobials: wholly manufactured by chemical processes
- Semisynthetic antimicrobials: naturally occurring antibiotics that can be chemically modified to improve their pharmacological actions and/or stability
Selective Toxicity and Therapeutic Index
- Selective toxicity: a drug's ability to inhibit or kill the targeted microbe without damaging host cells
- Therapeutic index: the ratio of the maximum tolerated or safe dose to the minimum effective or therapeutic dose
Half-Life
- The time it takes for half of a dose to be eliminated or deactivated by the body
Super Family of Drugs: Beta-Lactam Antimicrobials
- Work by blocking cell wall synthesis
- Most bacterial cell walls consist of peptidoglycan
Drug Families
- Beta-lactam antibiotics: include penicillins and cephalosporins
- Glycopeptides: include vancomycin
- Quinolones: target DNA replication enzymes
- Rifamycin: targets RNA polymerase
- Sulfonamides: target folic acid synthesis
- Carbapenems: effective against a variety of multidrug-resistant bacterial strains
Antiviral Drugs
- Stimulate an immune response to viruses
- Interferons: a category of antiviral drugs that stimulate an immune response
Antifungal Drugs
- Target fungal cell walls and plasma membranes
- Azoles, allylamines, and polyenes: target fungal plasma membranes, specifically ergosterol
Antiprotozoan Drugs
- Antimalarial drugs: used to treat malaria
- Non-antimalarial drugs: used to treat other protozoan infections
Antimicrobial Resistance
- A situation in which a microbe is not affected by a drug therapy intended to inhibit or eliminate the pathogen
- Can be intrinsic or acquired
- Can be spread by horizontal gene transfer
Assessing Sensitivity to Antimicrobial Drugs
- Antimicrobial susceptibility tests: performed to assess if a pathogen is likely to be treatable with a particular antimicrobial drug
- Kirby-Bauer test: used to determine a bacterium's susceptibility to antimicrobial drugs
Minimum Inhibitory Concentration (MIC) and Minimum Bactericidal Concentration (MBC)
- MIC: the lowest concentration of an antimicrobial drug that inhibits the microbe's growth
- MBC: the minimum concentration of a drug that kills at least 99.9% of the bacteria present### Bacterial Respiratory System Infections
- Gram-positive rod Corynebacterium diphtheriae causes diphtheria
- A bull neck is a swelling in the neck region observed in acute diphtheria infections
- A thickened, leathery structure called a pseudomembrane can form on the throat if left untreated
- DTaP vaccine protects against diphtheria, tetanus toxoids, and acellular pertussis
- Gram-negative bacterium Bordetella pertussis causes pertussis (whooping cough)
- Paroxysms are sudden or violent attacks of severe coughing associated with pertussis
- Tdap booster is necessary to renew immunity to pertussis as DTaP immunity is not long-lived
- Mycobacterium tuberculosis; acid-fast, Gram-positive bacteria causes tuberculosis (TB)
- Granulomas are small areas of inflammation due to tissue injury that store infected macrophages to limit spread of infection
- Granulomas form during latent tuberculosis stage
- Latent TB can progress to active TB infection when the center of the granuloma liquefies and the walls break down
Fungal Respiratory System Infections
- Fungal infection is called mycosis
- Blastomyces dermatitidis causes blastomycosis in the USA, also known as Chicago Disease
- Fungus can be dimorphic, existing in two distinct forms
- Saprophyte is a mold form that thrives on decomposing plant matter in moist soil
- Coccidioides immitis and Coccidioides posadasii cause coccidioidomycosis, also known as Valley fever
- Histoplasma capsulatum causes histoplasmosis
- Opportunistic fungal pathogens cause most ubiquitous mycoses, affecting immune-compromised patients
- Aspergillus fumigatus is the main fungal genus isolated from patients with invasive aspergillosis
- Rhizopus arrhizus causes mucormycosis
- Pneumocystis jirovecii causes pneumocystis pneumonia (PCP)
Skin and Eye Infections
Overview of Skin Structure, Defenses, and Afflictions
- Epidermis is the outermost, waterproof barrier that protects the inner basal level of cells from intruders
- Keratinocytes comprise most of the epidermis, containing keratin, a water-prooüng protein
- Dermis is the layer of skin below the epidermis
- Subcutaneous layer is the layer associated with the skin below the dermis
- Melanin is the brown pigment in our skin, having antimicrobial properties and protecting against ultraviolet radiation
- Lysozyme is an enzyme found in perspiration, breaking down the peptidoglycan found in bacterial cell walls
- Sebum is an oily or waxy substance produced by the skin's sebaceous glands, moisturizing and protecting the skin
Viral Skin Infections
- Herpesviridae family virus varicella-zoster causes chickenpox
- Typically spread through respiratory droplets and direct contact with pox lesions
- Varicella-zoster virus causes shingles
- Remains dormant in the peripheral nerves
- Postherpetic neuralgia (PHN) is a chronic pain condition associated with shingles
- Variola major virus causes smallpox
- Had a mortality rate of 30% and was highly contagious
- Human Herpes virus 1 (HSV-1) causes oral herpes
- Presents as painful, itchy, vesicular lesions on the lips
- Can cause latency and reactivate in about 2/3rds of patients
- Rubeola (measles) virus causes measles
- Associated with Koplik's spots, red spots with white dots in the center on the tongue and in the mouth
- Measles is making a comeback due to parents choosing not to vaccinate their children
- MMR vaccine protects against measles, mumps, and rubella
Bacterial Infections of the Skin
- Propionibacterium acnes bacteria play a major role in certain types of acne
- Staphylococcus aureus bacteria cause "staph infections"
- Staphylococcus aureus can cause impetigo, erysipelas, cellulitis, and folliculitis
- Cellulitis is a deeper Staphylococcus aureus infection of the lower dermal and subcutaneous fat
- MRSA stands for Methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus
- VRSA stands for Vancomycin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus
- Staphylococcus aureus can be differentiated from Streptococcus pyogenes by coagulase and catalase tests
- Streptococcus pyogenes is coagulase and catalase negative
- Streptococcus pyogenes causes impetigo, cellulitis, and necrotizing fasciitis
- Necrotizing fasciitis is also known as "Llesh-eating disease"
- Pseudomonas aeruginosa is a common cause of HAIs, an opportunistic pathogen that readily establishes infections in people with weak immune systems
- Pyocyanin is a greenish-blue pigment produced by P. aeruginosa, generating reactive forms of oxygen to further damage tissue
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Description
This quiz covers the biomedical applications of microbiology, including vaccines, diagnostics, and therapeutics, as well as molecular methods. Topics include the history of vaccines and smallpox.
