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Questions and Answers
What is the purpose of passive immunisation?
What is the purpose of passive immunisation?
- To provide immediate protection against a particular organism (correct)
- To cure a disease caused by a particular organism
- To create a vaccine against a particular organism
- To generate memory against a particular organism
SARS is caused by the MERS coronavirus
SARS is caused by the MERS coronavirus
False (B)
The _____________ vaccine is an example of a vaccine against SARS-CoV-2 that uses a non-replicating viral vector approach.
The _____________ vaccine is an example of a vaccine against SARS-CoV-2 that uses a non-replicating viral vector approach.
Johnson and Johnson/Janssen
How do SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV viruses spread?
How do SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV viruses spread?
More than 100 vaccines were in early clinical development against SARS-CoV-2
More than 100 vaccines were in early clinical development against SARS-CoV-2
Match the following vaccines against SARS-CoV-2 with their respective approaches:
Match the following vaccines against SARS-CoV-2 with their respective approaches:
Some laboratory-confirmed cases of MERS-CoV infection are reported as asymptomatic
Some laboratory-confirmed cases of MERS-CoV infection are reported as asymptomatic
Which of the following is NOT a type of microorganism that can cause disease?
Which of the following is NOT a type of microorganism that can cause disease?
In some cases, a rise in temperature is not a marker of infection.
In some cases, a rise in temperature is not a marker of infection.
What is the importance of taking a detailed history in diagnosing an infection?
What is the importance of taking a detailed history in diagnosing an infection?
Interleukin ___________ tells the brain to increase the temperature in response to an infection.
Interleukin ___________ tells the brain to increase the temperature in response to an infection.
Match the following routes of transmission with the corresponding diseases:
Match the following routes of transmission with the corresponding diseases:
What is the name of the test used to distinguish between gram positive and gram negative bacteria?
What is the name of the test used to distinguish between gram positive and gram negative bacteria?
A cough is never a marker of infection.
A cough is never a marker of infection.
What is the name of the cytokine that is involved in increasing the body's temperature in response to an infection?
What is the name of the cytokine that is involved in increasing the body's temperature in response to an infection?
C-reactive protein is a marker of ___________ and inflammation.
C-reactive protein is a marker of ___________ and inflammation.
Which of the following is a type of skin change that can be a marker of infection?
Which of the following is a type of skin change that can be a marker of infection?
What is widely used to test for sepsis?
What is widely used to test for sepsis?
Antibody tests are used to detect viruses.
Antibody tests are used to detect viruses.
What is the primary usage of JavaScript?
What is the primary usage of JavaScript?
Masks, hand hygiene, etc. are part of _______________ public health measures.
Masks, hand hygiene, etc. are part of _______________ public health measures.
Match the following diagnostic tools with their primary usage:
Match the following diagnostic tools with their primary usage:
What is NOT used to detect bacteria?
What is NOT used to detect bacteria?
Quarantine only affects the mental health of individuals.
Quarantine only affects the mental health of individuals.
What is the primary focus of infection control measures in hospitals and healthcare premises?
What is the primary focus of infection control measures in hospitals and healthcare premises?
Nucleic acid amplification/PCR is used to detect _______________ in bacteria.
Nucleic acid amplification/PCR is used to detect _______________ in bacteria.
What is an ethical issue in infection control?
What is an ethical issue in infection control?
Which of the following microorganisms is NOT typically transmitted through insect vectors?
Which of the following microorganisms is NOT typically transmitted through insect vectors?
What is the primary function of interleukin 6 in response to infection?
What is the primary function of interleukin 6 in response to infection?
Which of the following markers of infection is NOT typically associated with a decrease in temperature?
Which of the following markers of infection is NOT typically associated with a decrease in temperature?
What is the primary purpose of Gram stain in the diagnosis of bacterial infections?
What is the primary purpose of Gram stain in the diagnosis of bacterial infections?
Which of the following is a type of skin change that can be a marker of infection, characterized by deep skin infection?
Which of the following is a type of skin change that can be a marker of infection, characterized by deep skin infection?
What is the primary function of C-reactive protein in response to infection?
What is the primary function of C-reactive protein in response to infection?
Which of the following is a common route of transmission for Hepatitis A?
Which of the following is a common route of transmission for Hepatitis A?
What is the primary importance of taking a detailed history in diagnosing an infection?
What is the primary importance of taking a detailed history in diagnosing an infection?
Which type of immunisation provides immediate protection against infection, but does not generate long-term immunity?
Which type of immunisation provides immediate protection against infection, but does not generate long-term immunity?
What is the primary mechanism of transmission of SARS-CoV?
What is the primary mechanism of transmission of SARS-CoV?
Which vaccine against SARS-CoV-2 uses a DNA-based approach?
Which vaccine against SARS-CoV-2 uses a DNA-based approach?
What is the name of the syndrome caused by the MERS-CoV virus?
What is the name of the syndrome caused by the MERS-CoV virus?
What is the name of the virus that causes SARS?
What is the name of the virus that causes SARS?
Which of the following vaccines against SARS-CoV-2 uses a lipid nanoparticle mRNA approach?
Which of the following vaccines against SARS-CoV-2 uses a lipid nanoparticle mRNA approach?
What is the primary difference between SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV?
What is the primary difference between SARS-CoV and MERS-CoV?
How many vaccines against SARS-CoV-2 were in early pre-clinical development?
How many vaccines against SARS-CoV-2 were in early pre-clinical development?
What is the primary purpose of nucleic acid amplification/PCR in diagnosing infections?
What is the primary purpose of nucleic acid amplification/PCR in diagnosing infections?
Which of the following is NOT a diagnostic tool used to detect viruses?
Which of the following is NOT a diagnostic tool used to detect viruses?
What is the primary focus of infection control measures in hospitals and healthcare premises?
What is the primary focus of infection control measures in hospitals and healthcare premises?
What is the significance of quarantine in public health?
What is the significance of quarantine in public health?
Which of the following diagnostic tools is widely used to test for sepsis?
Which of the following diagnostic tools is widely used to test for sepsis?
What is the primary purpose of antigen tests in diagnosing infections?
What is the primary purpose of antigen tests in diagnosing infections?
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Study Notes
Microorganisms Causing Disease
- Bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa, helminths (worms), and prions can cause disease
Transmission of Infection
- Person to person: influenza, SARS-CoV-2, EBV, HIV
- Water: cholera, Hepatitis A
- Food: E. coli, salmonella
- Insects: Malaria
- Surface: MRSA
History Taking
- Importance of taking detailed history:
- Symptoms
- Time since first exposure
- Contacts (including sexual partners, animals)
- Environment (damp building, air conditioner, overcrowding)
- Food/drink
- Travel
Markers of Infection
- Rise in temperature (in some cases, temperature may go down)
- Interleukin 1 tells the brain to increase the temperature
- General malaise (lethargy, body ache, head ache, loss of appetite, influenza, etc.)
- Pain (general muscle pain in many infections, abdominal pain in hepatitis, abdomen tender to touch, etc.)
- Breathlessness (chest infection including pneumonia)
- Local skin changes:
- Impetigo: blisters and sores on the skin
- Cellulitis: redness, heat, pain at the site of infection
- Necrotising fasciitis: deep skin infection
- Cough:
- Dry cough (e.g., whooping cough)
- Productive cough: purulent sputum (e.g., tuberculosis)
- Confusion (meningitis, sepsis, etc.)
General Tests for Infection
- White blood cell count: generally increases in infection, but may decrease in some cases (e.g., CD4+ cells in HIV)
- Interleukin 6 is a cytokine involved in this process
- C-reactive protein: increases in infection and inflammation
Tests for Cause of Infection
- Bacteria:
- Direct microscopy after staining (Gram stain, acid-fast stain)
- Blood culture (growth and identification)
- Swabs (direct staining and microscopy, growth in appropriate medium)
- Nucleic acid amplification/PCR
- Antigen tests (e.g., hepatitis)
- Antibody tests
- Viruses:
- Detection of antigens using Elisa/immunofluorescence
- Nucleic acid amplifications/PCR
- Antibody tests
Investigations for Infection
- X-ray (used in chest infections and TB)
- MRI scan
- CT scan
Public Health and Ethical Issues
- Infection control:
- General public health measures: masks, hand hygiene, etc.
- Infection control measures in hospitals and healthcare premises
- Quarantine: effect on all areas of healthcare, effect on mental health
- Ethical issues:
- Ethical dilemmas around sexually transmitted diseases
- Who do you tell? When do you tell? Public health measures and freedom of citizens (SARS-CoV-2)
Vaccines
- Passive immunization:
- Immunoglobulins from human serum (pooled human immunoglobulin or hyperimmune immunoglobulin)
- Helpful in patients who have no immunity against that particular organism
- Does not generate memory - antibodies have to be made again
- Clears from the patient’s system in a few weeks to months
- SARS-CoV-2 vaccines:
- Examples: Pfizer, Moderna, Oxford/AstraZeneca, and Johnson and Johnson/Janssen vaccines
- Different approaches:
- Lipid nanoparticle mRNA
- DNA
- Adjuvanted protein
- Inactivated virus particles
- Non-replicating viral vectors
- More than 100 other vaccines were in early pre-clinical development
- Coronavirus vaccines in general use:
- Pfizer/BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine
- Pfizer/BioNTech bivalent COVID-19 vaccine
- Moderna COVID-19 vaccine
- Moderna bivalent COVID-19 vaccine
- Novavax COVID-19 vaccine (Nuvaxovid)
SARS and MERS
- SARS:
- Caused by SARS-CoV (bats to other animals and people)
- Symptoms: respiratory problems, dry cough, fever, head and body aches
- Spread through respiratory droplets from coughs and sneezes
- MERS:
- Caused by MERS-CoV (direct or indirect contact with infected dromedary camels)
- Symptoms: fever, cough, and shortness of breath
- Pneumonia is common, but not always present
- Gastrointestinal symptoms, including diarrhea, have also been reported
- Some laboratory-confirmed cases of MERS-CoV infection are reported as asymptomatic
Microorganisms Causing Disease
- Bacteria, viruses, fungi, protozoa, helminths (worms), and prions can cause disease
Transmission of Infection
- Person to person: influenza, SARS-CoV-2, EBV, HIV
- Water: cholera, Hepatitis A
- Food: E. coli, salmonella
- Insects: Malaria
- Surface: MRSA
History Taking
- Importance of taking detailed history:
- Symptoms
- Time since first exposure
- Contacts (including sexual partners, animals)
- Environment (damp building, air conditioner, overcrowding)
- Food/drink
- Travel
Markers of Infection
- Rise in temperature (in some cases, temperature may go down)
- Interleukin 1 tells the brain to increase the temperature
- General malaise (lethargy, body ache, head ache, loss of appetite, influenza, etc.)
- Pain (general muscle pain in many infections, abdominal pain in hepatitis, abdomen tender to touch, etc.)
- Breathlessness (chest infection including pneumonia)
- Local skin changes:
- Impetigo: blisters and sores on the skin
- Cellulitis: redness, heat, pain at the site of infection
- Necrotising fasciitis: deep skin infection
- Cough:
- Dry cough (e.g., whooping cough)
- Productive cough: purulent sputum (e.g., tuberculosis)
- Confusion (meningitis, sepsis, etc.)
General Tests for Infection
- White blood cell count: generally increases in infection, but may decrease in some cases (e.g., CD4+ cells in HIV)
- Interleukin 6 is a cytokine involved in this process
- C-reactive protein: increases in infection and inflammation
Tests for Cause of Infection
- Bacteria:
- Direct microscopy after staining (Gram stain, acid-fast stain)
- Blood culture (growth and identification)
- Swabs (direct staining and microscopy, growth in appropriate medium)
- Nucleic acid amplification/PCR
- Antigen tests (e.g., hepatitis)
- Antibody tests
- Viruses:
- Detection of antigens using Elisa/immunofluorescence
- Nucleic acid amplifications/PCR
- Antibody tests
Investigations for Infection
- X-ray (used in chest infections and TB)
- MRI scan
- CT scan
Public Health and Ethical Issues
- Infection control:
- General public health measures: masks, hand hygiene, etc.
- Infection control measures in hospitals and healthcare premises
- Quarantine: effect on all areas of healthcare, effect on mental health
- Ethical issues:
- Ethical dilemmas around sexually transmitted diseases
- Who do you tell? When do you tell? Public health measures and freedom of citizens (SARS-CoV-2)
Vaccines
- Passive immunization:
- Immunoglobulins from human serum (pooled human immunoglobulin or hyperimmune immunoglobulin)
- Helpful in patients who have no immunity against that particular organism
- Does not generate memory - antibodies have to be made again
- Clears from the patient’s system in a few weeks to months
- SARS-CoV-2 vaccines:
- Examples: Pfizer, Moderna, Oxford/AstraZeneca, and Johnson and Johnson/Janssen vaccines
- Different approaches:
- Lipid nanoparticle mRNA
- DNA
- Adjuvanted protein
- Inactivated virus particles
- Non-replicating viral vectors
- More than 100 other vaccines were in early pre-clinical development
- Coronavirus vaccines in general use:
- Pfizer/BioNTech COVID-19 vaccine
- Pfizer/BioNTech bivalent COVID-19 vaccine
- Moderna COVID-19 vaccine
- Moderna bivalent COVID-19 vaccine
- Novavax COVID-19 vaccine (Nuvaxovid)
SARS and MERS
- SARS:
- Caused by SARS-CoV (bats to other animals and people)
- Symptoms: respiratory problems, dry cough, fever, head and body aches
- Spread through respiratory droplets from coughs and sneezes
- MERS:
- Caused by MERS-CoV (direct or indirect contact with infected dromedary camels)
- Symptoms: fever, cough, and shortness of breath
- Pneumonia is common, but not always present
- Gastrointestinal symptoms, including diarrhea, have also been reported
- Some laboratory-confirmed cases of MERS-CoV infection are reported as asymptomatic
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